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REPORT
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— -~
(: OF THE —
Sane
ay
THIRTEENTH MEETING
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;
HELD AT CORK IN AUGUST 1843.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1844,
PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.
eh oa
CONTENTS.
—»—_
Page
Ozsects and Rules of the Association .. 1.26.61 see cers ee eteeee Vv
Officers and Council. is ic ii ci ieei a ee eee ee eee e va aaa vii
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ....+.....+. viii
Table of Council from commencement .........-.. +s ees ee eees ix
Officers of Sectional Committees and Corresponding Members xi
Treasurer’s Account............ ep ok AIC Nh geht uel ars are aaa titan ay : xii
Reports, Researches, and Desiderata .........-++ se eee seer eee ee XIV
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science XX
memes OF Money Grants. 6c. 08s tesece ceca choses ee usa8 XXIV
Arrangements of the General Evening Meetings ...............- XXVili
Address of the President. . dias Fy spaccahaltnsDalhs af. .i) CRRIX
Report of the Council to the + at pono sal i aN a : . XXxiv
Report of the Committee appointed to superintend the catablishinaht
of Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory ........ XXxix
Repoft on the Electro- Hk ad an, Register. By Pie
essor WHEATSTONE, F.R.S. Gh da tos Caan xl
REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt,
clear or foul, and of various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought
Iron, and Steel. By Rosert Mauet, Mem. Inst. C.E., M.R.IA.. 1
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joan Herscuet, the Mas-
TER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, Sorat the Drawn or Ezy, Dr.
Luioyp, and Colonel Saxninz, appointed to conduct the co-operation
of the British Association in the system of Simultaneous Magnetical
and Meteorological Observations ...... EE TR OE PE 54
Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteorologi-
cal Observations. By Sir J. F. W. Herscuet, Bart. ............ 60
Report of the Committee appointed by the British Association for Ex-
periments on Steam-engines. Members of the Committee :—EatTon
Hovexinsovn, Esq., F.R.S.; J. Enys, Esq.; Rev. Professor Mosz.ey,
M.A., F.R.S.; and Professor WILLIAM Poe SRA cedlate) hin sincced® SN 104
Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. H. E. Srrickianp, Professor
Davseny, Professor Henstow and Professor LinpLeEy, appointed
to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds........ aiarat she
iy CONTENTS,
P
Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of Forth
and the East Coast of Scotland. By J. S. Russext, Esq. ........ 110
Notice of a Report of the Committee on the Form of Ships. By Joun
Scorr RussExt, Esq 5 112
Com wage es eeravesearstesce ss cernerevevessesse
Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines. By J.Buaxe, M.R.C.S. 115
Report of a Committee appointed to print and circulate a Report on
Zoological Nomenclature... 205.2... cccccccecccces Seals a wise 119
Report of the Committee appointed by the British Association in 1842,
for registering the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteor-
ological Observations as may appear to them desirable.......... :. 120
Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive
Balloons ........ edt otbdENadd eilcrerw vst GIN 254 te 3219 Midlevel a seus Vadim wis 128
Appendix to the Report, by Professor WHEATSTONE .......... 128
Report of the Committee for the Translation and Publication of Foreign
Scientific Memoirs 00 LS, Fm ON en cree rs eee tae)
On the Habits of the Marine Testacea. By C. W. Peacn.......... 129
Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the AEgean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology. By Epwarp Forsss,
F.L.S., M.W.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College, London.... 130
Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the
Geological Formations. By M. AGASSIZ.............2-. 0000s 194
Report on the British Fossil Mammalia. By RicHarp Owen, Esq.,
BLRCS Part Wes oases eet ae ah evb ges... + Mbarh a vkSh «j9, 208
Report on the Excavation made at the junction of the Lower New Red
Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst, near Manchester.
By Ee OW. BINNEY) 22 Jalen eere fe see SE Re et be va me poe
Report on the Fauna of Ireland. Div. Invertebrata. Drawn up, at the
request of the British Association, by W1LL1AmM THompson, Esq., Pre-
sident of the Natural History and Philosophical Society of Belfast.. 245
Provisional Reports and Notices of Progress in Special Researches en-
trusted to Committees and Individuals .........0+eeeeeceserree 291
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
—_———
OBJECTS.
Tue AssociATION contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.
RULES.
MEMBERS.
All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to conform
to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution, recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to beeome Members of the Association, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
SUBSCRIPTIONS.
The amount of the Annual Subscription shall be One Pound, to be paid in
advance upon admission ; and the amount of the composition in lieu thereof,
Five Pounds.
An admission fee of One Pound is required from all Members elected as
Annual Subscribers, after the Meeting of 1839, in addition to their annual
subscription of One Pound.
The volume of Reports of the Association will be distributed gratuitously
to every Annual Subscriber who has actually paid the Annual Subscription
for the year to which the volume relates, and to all those Life Members who
shall have paid Two Pounds as a Book Subscription.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
af hes Annual Subscription of any Member shall have been ee for
3.
vi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. .
two years, and shall not be paid on proper notice, he shall cease to be a
Member.
MEETINGS.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. ,The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the previous
Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of
the Association.
GENERAL COMMITTEE.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer,
to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the following
ersons :—
i 1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au-
thors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who have communicated any Paper toa Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association.
3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceeding
three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions,
4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any
place where the Association has formerly met.
5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries.
6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex
officio members of the General Committee for the time being,
SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.
The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof,
The Committee shall report what subjects of investigation they would par-
ticularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought
under consideration at the next Meeting.
The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of par-
ticular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for
the information of the Annual Meetings.
COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the adyancement of Science. Se
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall. be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommen-
dations,
LOCAL COMMITTEES.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
i ——
—
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. vil
OFFICERS.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
@ COUNCIL.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting,
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the Meeting.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1843—44.
Trustees ( permanent).—Francis Baily, Esq., F.R.S. Roderick Impey Mur-
chison, Esq., F.R.S., Pres. G.S. John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., Treas. G.S.
President.—The Earl of Rosse.
Vice-Presidents—The Earl of Listowel. Vise. Adare, M.P., F.R.S.
Sir W. R. Hamilton, R.LA. Rev. T. R, Robinson, D.D.
President Elect—The Very Reverend George Peacock, D.D., Dean of Ely.
Vice-Presidents Elect—The Earl Fitzwilliam, F.R.S. Viscount Mor-
peth, F.G.S. The Hon. John Stuart Wortley, M.P. Sir David Brewster, K.H.
Michael Faraday, Esq., F.R.S, Rev. William V. Harcourt, F.R.S.
General Secretaries —Roderick Impey Murchison, Esq,, F.R.S., Pres. G.S.,
London. Lieut.-Col. Sabine, F.R.S., Woolwich. ~
Assistant General Secretary.—Professor Phillips, F.R.S., York.
General Treasurer—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi,
London. ;
Secretaries for the York Meeting in 1844.—William Hatfeild, Esq., F.G.S.
Thomas Meynell, Esq., F.L.S. Rey. W. Scoresby, LL.D., F.R.S. Wil-
liam West, Esq.
Treasurer to the Meeting in 1844,—William Gray, jun., Esq., F.G.S.
Council—Sir H. 'T, De la Beche. Rev. Dr. Buckland. Dr. Daubeny.
Professor T. Graham. J. E. Gray, Esq. G. B, Greenough, Esq. James
Heywood, Esq. Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq. Leonard Horner, Esq, Robert
Hutton, Esq. Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. Rev. Professor Lloyd, Charles
Lyell, Esq. Professor MacNeill. Professor MacCullagh, Professor Moseley.
The Marquis of Northampton. Dr. Richardson. Rev. Professor Sedgwick.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes. William Thompson, Esq. Professor Wheatstone. Rev.
William Whewell (Master of Trin. Coll., Cambridge). C. J.B. Williams, M.D.
Local Treasurers—Dr. Daubeny, Oxford. C. C. Babington, Esq,, Cam-
bridge. Dr, Orpen, Dublin. W. Ramsay, Esq., Edinburgh and Glasgow.
William Gray, jun., Esq., York. William Sanders, Esq., Bristol. Samuel
Turner, Esq., Liverpool. G. W. Ormerod, Esq. Manchester. James
Russell, Esq., Birmingham. William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Henry Woollcombe, Esq., Plymouth, James Roche, Esq., Cork.
Auditors.—William Yarrell, Esq. James Heywood, Esq. Professor
MacNeill. ;
2
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MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. ix
II. Table showing the Members of Council of the British Association from
its commencement, in addition to Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
Secretaries.
Rev. Wm. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &c. «2... Sich Cat:
Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. .......ss00e
General Secretaries. < R. 1, Murchison, F.R.S., F.G.S. ....cccssceeseene Tee? ise,
Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S., F.G.S., &. .....cceeeee 1837, 1838.
Lieut.-Colonel Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......scecseceeees 1839, 1843.
General Treasurer. John Taylor, F.R.S., Treas. G.S., &e. ...eeeas. 1832—1843,
Charles Babbage, F. R. SS.L. & E., &c. (Resigned.)
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., &c.
Trustees (permanent.) John Taylor, F.R.S., ae.
Francis Baily, F.R.S.
Assistant General | Professor Phillips, F.R.S.p 8. sepseseessasvevesvess1839—1843,
Secretary.
Members of Council.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astronomer Royal ...... 1834, 1835, 1841.
IVen bP Armbtt, WD tc. ecccdecgadesdicecegscevess 1838, 1839, 1840.
Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. ........5 18371839.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S.......ceccceeeeees 1841—1843.
George Bentham, F.L-S. .....ciscessescegessce 1834, 1835.
Robert Brown, D.C.L., F.R.S..scccceecsecseees 1832, 1834, 1835, 1838—184],
Sir David Brewster, F. R. BERG cos cece anay ands 1832, 18411842,
Sir Thomas Brisbane.........scsccesceseseceeceuce 842.
Sir M. I. Brunel, F.R.S., &. .....sccececeeeees Ff
Rey. Professor Buckland, D.D., F.R.S., &c.1833, 1835, 18838—1843,
The Earl of Burlington.........scsssesveseseeeees 1838, 1839.
Rev. T. Chalmers, D.D., Prof. of Divinity,
Bi GOGO Fe cece welchcs waae Gashes co 1 cous coun 1833
Professor Clark, Cambridge...... iia Rss sas dens 1838.
Professor Christie, F.R.S., &C. -.seccssescscees 1833—1837.
William Clift, F.R.S., F.G.S. c...ececseceeeeee 1832—1835.
Spe Colquhoun; HS. aueasiecupneaseeecerevsces 1840.
slohi.Corrie,: FLR.S., &6Cs. cox csecewivecuneness dees 1832.
Professor Daniell, F. rR 1S LS PRA 920 OR? 1836, 1839.
BP MBUDENY: ¢ 5.250 «ase sah emedcdenndasicaesscassea'e 1838—1843.
eee PMTIM WALT | cas thats otsatioes iseees onseick 1834, 1835.
mie. Gr Perton, Garis, <-ccacguscsdeeeescceaces 1840, 1841.
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c.. 1833.
Professor Forbes, F.R.SS. L. E., &c. ......005 1832, 1841, 1842.
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., V.P.R.S., &c. ...... 1832.
Professor R. Graham, M. D., F.R.S.E. 1837.
Professor Thomas Graham, F.R.S. ....0..s000s 1838, 18389—1843.
John Edward Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c....... 1837—1839, 1840, 1843,
Professor Green, F.R.S., F.G.S. ....sccesceeees 1832.
G. B. Greenough, F.R. S., i514 Cy ‘Scan ee 1832—1839—1843.
Henry Hallam, F.R.S., FS.A., OC Es « «Gace 1836.
Rey. W. V. Harcourt, F.R.S. ....ccccscacecsees 1842,
Sir William R. Hamilton, Astron. Royal of
Mreletiad’?* i crv sates ot ces ces MSs owes case 1832, 1833, 1836.
W. J. Hamilton, Sec. G.S.. v..ccccscccssescesace 1840-1842.
James Heywood, Esq., F.R.S....cseceseceesseee 1843.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S...1837.
Sir John F. W. Herschel, F.R.SS. L. & E.
F.R.ASS., F.G.S., &e.ccccccueees aga sleet 1832.
Thomas Hodgkin, M.D. ........sccsscscseceeees 1833—1837, 1839, 1840.
Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq. F.R.S. .......00ce000s 1843.
Prof. Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D., F.R.S., &c. 1832.
Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ...sccesescecescevsavees 1841—1843,
Rey. F. W. Hope, M.A., F.L.S. +1837.
x MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.
Robert Hutton, F.G,S., &...5...+ sintess heb ..1836, 1838, 1889—1843.
Professor R. Jameson, F.R.SS. Ly. 8c: Buses eve 1833,
Rey. Leonard Jenyns.....sssesseeseeeeeeeeeeeees 1838.
Hi. B. Jerrard, Esq. sccscccevererseeereenees SEE 1840.
Dr. Ri Lee <......ceccecctecsseeseces dhavasscoeanenec 1839.
Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. ...ssseseeseeeeeeeeeees 1838, 1839, 1842—1843.
Rey. Dr. Lardner ....ceceeereseceteceeeeeeeeeeeees 1838, 1839.
Professor Lindley, F.R.S., F Lise Oca. etees 1833, 1836.
Rev. Professor Lloyd, D.D. «..sssesseeeeeseeeees 1832, 1833, 1841—1843.
J. W. Lubbock, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c., Vice-
Chancellor of the University of London....1833—1836, 1838, 1839.
Rev. Thomas Luby .-sscsssceseeeeeeneecenensens 1832.
Charles Lyell, jun., F.R.S. .sssercessecaeees ....1838, 1839, 1840, 1843.
Professor MacCullagh, M.R.D-A......esseeeeeee 1843.
William Sharp MacLeay, F.L.S..ses.ttecseeee 1837.
Professor John Macneill ...scesseseeeseetererees 1843.
Professor Miller, F.G.S...+cceceeseceeeseeseeseees 1840.
Professor Moseley ....sssssesersseeeneceesseseeetes 1839, 1840, 1843.
Patrick Neill, LL.D., F.R.S.B.....-sceceeee eens 1833.
The Marquis of Northampton, iG) URS Bop eee 1840—1843.
Richard Owen, F.R.S., F.L.S.....ccsesceseeeeee 1836, 1838, 1839.
Rev. George Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c...... 1832, 1834, 1835, 1839—1842.
E. Pendarves, Esq....sctescesestecreneesenereneens 1840.
Rev. Professor Powell, M.A., F.R.S., &c. ...1836, 1837, 1839, 1840.
J. C. Prichard, M.D., F.R.S. &e. ....esseeeee 1832.
George Rennie, F.R.S. ccsecseeresseerneeeeerens 1833—1835, 1839, 1841.
Gir John Rennié......cccsssceceetecreerescenseevens 1838.
Dr. Richardson, F.R.S.......sesecereererecesenaee 1841—1843.
Rev. Professor Ritchie, F.R.S.......cecceseeeeee 1833.
Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. .......sceseceseeees 184].
Sir John Robison, Sec. R.S.E.....-..ceseeverees 1832, 1836, 1841, 1842.
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.G.S., &c...1834—1837, 1841, 1842.
Lieut.-Colonel Sabine ©......cccscssesseccsecerees 1838.
Lord, Sandon Avesccccesocssssea Otuedlegesinsnienses 1840.
H. E. Strickland, Esq.; F.G.S......0.csceeeeee 1840—1842.
Lieut.-Col.W. H. Sykes, F.R.8., F.L.S., &c.1837—1839, 1842—1843
H. Fox Talbot, Esq., FsR.S....s.csceseeereeeees 1840.
Rev. J. J. Tayler, B.A., Manchester ......... 1832
William Thompson, F.L.S. ..ccescceseeeeeeeeeee 1843.
Professor Traill, M.D. .....cccccscesdedecesieeosaes 1832, 1833.
N. A. Vigors, M.P., D.C.L., F.8.A., F-L.S.1832, 1836, 1840.
James Walker, Esq.; P.S.C.B...,..s.eseeseeeaes 1840.
Captain Washington, RN. ....tsesscceseeeenees 1838, 1839, 1840.
Professor Wheatstone ....c.sccssesescesccserers 1838—1843.
Rev. W. Whewell,F.R.S., MasterofT.C.Camb.1838, 1839, 1842, 1843.
©. Jy B. Williams; Mabe se. .sceeehatiaesccceese 1842, 1843.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S: .s.csscs.sesees 1842.
William ‘Yarrell, i. LiS..cc.. sues dacstsreratacss 1833—1836.
James Yates, Esq., M.A., F.R.S......0..000000 1842.
Secretaries to the eee: Turner, M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E. 1832—1836.
Council. James Yates, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 1831—1840.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. xi
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE
CORK MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President-—Professor M‘Cullagh, M.R.LA.
. Vice-Presidents—Professor Lloyd; F.R.S.; M.R.LA. The Rev. Dr. Pea-
cock, Dean of Ely, F.R.S. W. Snow Harris, F.R.S.
Secretaries—Professor Stevelly, M.A. John Nott.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY ;
(including their applications to Agriculture and the Arts.)
President.—Professor Apjohn, M.R.I.A.
Vice-Presidents-—Marquis of Northampton, Pres. R.S. Professor Kane,
M.R.I.A.
‘Secretaries —Robert Hunt, Sec: R: C. Polytechnic Society. Dr. Sweeny.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
President-—Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S., M.R.LA.
President for Geography —R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—Wm. Hopkins, F.R.S. Charles Lyell, F.R.S. John
Taylor, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Francis M. Jennings, M.R.LA., F.G.S. H.E. Strickland, F.G.S,
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
President.—William Thompson, F.L.S. .
Vice-Presidents—Robert Ball, M.R.LA. Professor Owen, F.R.S. Pro-
fessor E. Forbes, F.L.S. _C. C. Babington, F.L.S.
- Seereturies._-Edwin Lankester, M.D.; F.L.S. Robert Patterson. George
J. Allman; M.B.
SECTION E.—MEDICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.
Vice-Presidents—William Bullen, M.D. Charles P. Croker, M.D. A. H.
Callanan, M.D. Christopher Bull, M.D.
Secretaries —John Popham, M.D. Richard S. Sargent, M.D.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
President.—Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P.
Vice-Presidents.—Major N. Ludlow Beamish, F.R.S. Sir W. Chatterton.
Secretaries —W. Cooke Taylor, LL.D. D. Bullen, M.D.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor John Macneill, M.R.I.A.
Vice-Presidents—John Taylor, F.R.S. F.G. Bergen, Esq. Sir Thomas
Deane, Knut.
Secretaries.—James Thomson, F.R.S.E. Robert Mallet, C.E.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M. Arago, Secretary of the Institute,
Paris. A.D. Bache, Philadelphia. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Pro-
fessor Bessel, Kénigsberg. Professor H. von Boguslawski, Breslau. Pro-
fessor Braschmann, Moscow. Professor De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Dumas,
Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Professor Encke, Berlin. Dr. A. Er-
man, Berlin. M. Frisiani, Astronomer, Milan. Baron Alexander von Hum-
boldt, Berlin. Professor Henry, Princeton, U.S. M. Jacobi, St. Petersburgh.
Professor Jacobi, Kénigsberg. Dr. Lamont, Munich. Professor Liebig,
Giessen. Professor Link, Berlin. Dr. Langberg, Christiania. Professor
CErsted, Copenhagen. M. Otto, Breslau. Jean Plana, Astronomer Royal,
Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor C. Ritter, Berlin. Professor Schu-
macher, Altona. Professor Wartmann, Lausanne.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
—SSSSESEo ESS SS aera eee
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT from
RECEIPTS.
Balance in hand from last year’s ACCOUNt...scccesscseevennensuns
LifeCompositions received at theManchesterMeeting, and since
Annual Subscriptions..,...Ditto......Ditt0......DittOsesssseveves
Compositions for Books (future publications)...++1++seeseesereees
Moieties of £5 Compositions Refunded ...sseseeeecseesessvneeeees
Dividends on £5500 in 8 per cent. Consols, 18 months, vA
January 1843 wesc
POeeUUU ESIC
Received on account of Sale of Reports, viz.
1st vol.,
2nd vol.
3rd vol.
Ath vol.
5th vol.
6th vol.
7th vol.
8th vol.
9th vol.
10th vol.
11th vol.
2nd Edition .....
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Preveeer rere rere
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Seen eee eee earner esses eeen ss seas see ess seseees
Preeev er Teeter rere ee
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TRE CHES HEE Heer eee e Eee ee ese He eeTETETESOSEOE TEs
POP ee R SOT E EHO E SEE EEESE EOE HE REESE EES EES OEEED
Lithographs ..c.eccsscocceescsvecsccecscessecsccsqscesens
Received for Ladies’ Tickets at the Manchester Meeting ......
Ditto for Tickets to the Sections only......+.+ GittO...seseessseeee
Ditto from Bankers at
Manchester, Interest on Cash ..ecossseees
ROBERT HUTTON,
JAMES HEYWOOD, } Auditors
fe By) =O
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£3271 4 4
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
23rd. of JUNE 1842 to the 14th of AucusT 1843.
PAYMENTS.
£
Sundry Disbursements by Treasurer and Local Trea-
surers, including the expenses of the Manchester
Meeting, Advertising, and Sundry Printing ......
Paid for printing, &c. the Eleventh Report ......+..
_ Paid on account of Engraving for Twelfth Report
Paid Salaries to Assistant General Secretary, Ac-
COUNTANE, AC. cavcevecccccsvrserevececcereverescersccnss
Paid on account of Grants to Committees for Scien-
tific purposes, viz.—
Revision of the Nomenclature of Stars .1+++....1842
Reductionsof Stars, British AssociationCatalogue ,,
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth.....ssesseseseese 99
Hourly Meteorological Observations at Kingussie
and Inverness sevccecssscsrervassespesececes sevens lL G42
Hourly Meteorological Observations at Kingussie
ANA INVEINESS «eserseesesccccceerersescesececernee lL O4]
Meteorological Observations at Plymouth .,.... ,,
Gas fe cehiec tha tPete esa dadennsannaadascecanaaaskO4e
Do. Whewell’s Anemometer Do. ......00 55
Do. Osler’s ...00000sDO.eeeeesDO. .prceeeee 55
Reduction of Meteorological Observations ...... 5,
Meteorological Instruments and Gratuities......1841
Construction of Anemometer at Inverness ...... 5,
Magnetic Co-operation.....c00 cessssceseceeseveeees 99
Meteorological Recorder for Kew Observatory ,,
Action of Gases on Light ...scscssessseeceenerecrees 93
DU Ovepssiovus teas dcpuadevedsennepseecusesinn gevcsncenges 1842
Establishment at Kew Observatory, Wages, &c...... 38 7
Do. Repairs, Furniture, and Sundries ......... 94 17
Experiments by Captive Balloons .....+.+.+00+61842
Oxidation of the Rails of Railways ....+cscssssese
Publication of Report on Fossil Reptiles.........
Coloured Drawings of Railway Sections .........
Registration of Eathquake Shocks .....csesssese 99
Uncovering LowerRedSandstonenearManchester ,,
Report on Zoological Nomenclature .......sse00+
Vegetative Power of Sceds ...sesssesessesssscenees
Marine Testacea, (Habits of) ...sessscseesscsesree 93
Marine Zoology.....cecssosscecesccesecssesccsonsesces 99
PIO AE eects sceldu chase sncencsnecnas Mendskdeneemanne sen tT
Preparation of Report on British Fossil Mammalia 1842
Physiological operations of Medicinal Agents... ,,
Vital Statistics ....,...ccscccecerscesecccesessssensens LOA]
Additional Experiments on the Forms of Vessels _,,
WD Mine ces tesa srcsncwsadsacesteveeeaueieeeesdasctvaxsLOoe
Reduction of Observations ......++0..»DO..++...00.
Morin’s Instrument and Constant Indicator ... ,,
Experiments on the Strength of Materials...... 4,
”
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bE)
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Balance in the Bankers’ hands .eccccccessssssencees
Do. General Treasurer’s hands ....sscseseseeveee
Do. Local Treasurers’ hands. ..cow sevesesevevvees
romnmmmente oo
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432 16 11
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£3271 4 4
Xiv REPORT—1843.
The following Reports on the Progress and Desiderata of different branches
of Science have been drawn up at the request of the Association, and
printed in its Transactions.
1831-32.
On the progress of Astronomy during the present century, by G. B, Airy,
M.A., Astronomer Royal. a)
On the state of our knowledge respecting Tides, by J. W. Lubbock, M.A.,
Vice-President of the Royal Society.
On the recent progress and present state of Meteorology, by James D.
Forbes, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh.
On the present state of our knowledge of the science of Radiant Heat; by
the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry,
Oxford.
On Thermo-electricity, by the Rev. James Cumming, M.A,; F.R.S., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry, Cambridge. :
On the recent progress of Optics, by Sir David Brewster, K.C.G., LL.D.,
F.R.S., &c.
On the recent progress and present state of Mineralogy, by the Rev.
William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S.
On the progress, actual state, and ulterior prospects of Geology, by the
Rev. William Conybeare, M.A., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c.
On the recent progress and present state of Chemical Science; by J. F. W.
Johnston, A.M., Professor of Chemistry, Durham.
On the applicatién of Philological and Physical researches to the History
of the Human species, by J. C. Prichard, M.D., F.R.S., &c.
1833.
On the advances which have recently been made in certain branches of
Analysis, by the Rev. G. Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c.
On the present state of the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hydro-
dynamics, by the Rev. John Challis, M.A, F.R.S.; &e.
On the state of our knowledge of Hydraulics, considered as a branch of
Engineering, by George Rennie, F.R.S., &c. (Parts I. and II.)
On the state of our knowledge respecting the Magnetism of the Earth, by
S. H. Christie, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics, Woolwich.
On the state of our knowledge of the Strength of Materials, by Peter
Barlow, F.R.S.
On the state of our knowledge respecting Mineral Veins, by John Taylor,
E.R.S., Treasurer G.S., &c.
a the Physiology of the Nervous System, by William Charles Henry,
On the recent progress of Physiological Botany, by John Lindley, F.R.S.,
Professor of Botany in the University of London.
1834.
On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S.
On the philosophy of Contagion, by W. Henry, M.D., F.R.S.
On the state of Physiological Knowledge, by the Rev. Wm. Clark, M.D.,
F.G.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge.
On the state and progress of Zoology, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A.,
F.L.S., &e.
On the theories of Capillary Attraction, and of the Propagation of Sound
- aie. by the Development of Heat, by the Rev. John Challis, M.A.,
-R.S., &e.
> SS oS
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xV
_ On the state of the science of Physical Optics, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, M.A.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy, Dublin.
1835.
On the state of our knowledge respecting the application of Mathematical
and Dynamical principles to Magnetism, Electricity, Heat, &c., by the Rev.
William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S.
On Hnsteen’s researches in Magnetism, by Captain Sabine, F.R.S,
On the state of Mathematical and Physical Science in Belgium, by M.
Quetelet, Director of the Observatory, Brussels.
1836.
On the present state of our knowledge with respect to Mineral and Thermal
Waters, by Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., &c., Professor of
Chemistry and of Botany, Oxford. '
On North American Zoology, by John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S., &e.
Supplementary Report on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids, by the Rev.
J. Challis, Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge.
1837.
On the variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different points of
the Earth’s surface, by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.
__On the various modes of Printing for the use of the Blind, by the Rev.
William Taylor, F.R.S.
On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies,
by Professor Johnston, F.R.S.
On the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British
Government, by Col. Sykes, F.R.S.
1838.
Appendix to Report on the variations of Magnetic Intensity, by Major
Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.
1839.
Report on the present state of our knowledge of Refractive Indices for
the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media, by the Rev.
Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.Ast.8., Savilian Professor of Geo«
metry, Oxford.
Report on the distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles,
by Edward Forbes, M.W.S., For. See. B.S.
Report on British Fossil Reptiles, Part I., by Richard Owen, Esq., F.R.S.4
E.G.S., &e.
wit: 1840.
Report on the recent progress of discovery relative to Radiant Heat, sup-
plementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first
volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, by the Rey. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.Ast.S., F.G.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford.
_ Supplementary Report on Meteorology, by James D. Forbes, Esq,, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S. Ed., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edin-
burgh.
wa 1841.
Report on the conduction of Heat, by Professor Kelland, F.R.S., &c.
Report on the state of our knowledge of Fossil Reptiles, Part II., by Pro-
fessor R. Owen, F.R.S.
1842.
Abstract of Report of Professor Liebig on Organic Chemistry applied to
Physiology and Pathology, by Lyon Playfair, M.D.
XVi REPORT—1843.
Report on the Ichthyology of New Zealand, by John Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S.
On the Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone, by Professor Agassiz.
Report on British Fossil Mammalia (Part I.), by Professor Owen.
1843.
Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, by Professor Agassiz.
Report on British Fossil Mammalia (Part II.), by Professor Owen.
Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata. Drawn up, at the
request of the British Association, by William Thompson, Esq., President of
the Natural History and Philosophical Society of Belfast.
The following Reports of Researches undertaken at the request of the Associa~
tion have been published in its Transactions, viz.
1835.
On the comparative measurement of the Aberdeen Standard Scale, by
Francis Baily, Treasurer R.S., &c.
On Impact upon Beams, by Eaton Hodgkinson.
Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic
Force in Ireland, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, Capt. Sabine, and Capt. J. C. Ross.
On the phenomena usually referred to the Radiation of Heat, by H.
Hudson, M.D.
Experiments on Rain at different Elevations, by Wm. Gray, jun., and
Professor -Phillips (Reporter).
Hourly Observations of the Thermometer at Plymouth, by W. S. Harris.
On the Infra-orbital Cavities in Deers and Antelopes, by A. Jacob, M.D.
On the Effects of Acrid Poisons, by T. Hodgkin, M.D.
On the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the Dublin Sub-Committee.
On the Registration of Deaths, by the Edinburgh Sub-Committee.
1836.
Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic
Force in Scotland, by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.RB.S., &e.
Comparative view of the more remarkable Plants which characterize the
Neighbourhood of Dublin, the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and the South-
west of Scotland, &c.; drawn up for the British Association by J. T. Mackay,
M.R.LA., A.L.S., &c.; assisted by Robert Graham, Esq., M.D., Professor of
Botany in the University of Edinburgh.
Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section of the
British Association on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart.
Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and
Nervous System.
Account of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides which
have been obtained by means of the grant of money which was placed at the
disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last meeting of the Association,
by J. W. Lubbock, Esq.
Observations for determining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays
of the Solar Spectrum in various media, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A.,
F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford.
Provisional Report on the Communication between the Arteries and
Absorbents, on the part of the London Committee, by Dr. Hodgkin.
Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature, under the direction
of a Committee, consisting of Professor Forbes, Mr. W. 8. Harris, Professor
Powell, Lieut.-Colonel Sykes, and Professor Phillips (Reporter).
a
rma
ne
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. Xvi
Inquiry into the validity of a method recently proposed by George B.
Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees;
undertaken, at the request of the Association, by Professor Sir W. R. Hamilton.
1837.
Account of the Discussions of Observations of the Tides which have been
obtained by means of the grant of money which was placed at the disposal
of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association, by J.
W. Lubbock, Esq., F.R.S.
On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the
Cold and the Hot Blast, by Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E., &c.,
Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow.
On the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Ob-
servations, made as commanded by the British Association, by the Rey. T.
_R. Robinson, D.D.
On some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Tem-
perature of Mines, by Robert Were Fox.
Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British
Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the
Organs producing them.
Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the Glands,
&e. of the Human Body, by G. O. Rees, M.D., F.G.S.
Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section of
the British Association, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart.
Report from the Committee for making experiments on the Growth of
Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the outward
air, on the plan of Mr. N. I. Ward of London.
Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British Association
at Bristol in 1836, and consisting of Sir John Robison, K.H., Secretary of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A. F.R.S.
Edin. (Reporter).
On the Relative Strength and other mechanical Properties of Cast Iron ob-
- tained by Hot and Cold Blast, by Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq.
On the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and
Cold Blast, by W. Fairbairn, Esq.
\ 1838.
' Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Channel to the En-
glish Channel, during the year 1837-38, by Mr. Bunt, under the Direction
of a Committee of the British Association. Drawn up by the Rev. W.
Whewell, F.R.S., one of the Committee.
A Memoir on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British
Islands, from observations by Professors Humphrey Lloyd and John Phil-
lips, Robert Were Fox, Esq., Captain James Clark Ross, R.N., and Major
Edward Sabine, R.A., by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.
First Report on the Determination of the Mean Numerical Values of Rail-
areal by Dionysius Lardner, LL.D., F.R.S., &e.
_ First Report upon Experiments instituted at the request of the British
Association, upon the Action of Sea and River Water, whether clear or foul,
and at various temperatures, upon Cast and Wrought Iron, by Robert Mal-
let, M.R.I.A., Ass. Ins. C.E.
Notice of Experiments in progress, at the desire of the British Association,
on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic
and Organic Substances, by Robert Mallet, M.R.LA.
Experiments on the ultimate Transverse Strength of Cast Iron made at
XViil REPORT—1843.
Arigna Works, Co. Leitrim, Ireland, at Messrs. Bramah and Robinson’s, 29th
May, 1837.
Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches en-
trusted to Committees and Individuals,
1889.
Report on the application of the-sum assigned for Tide Calculations to
Mr, Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq., Bristol.
Notice of Determination of the Are of Longitude between the Observato-
ries of Armagh and Dublin, by the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., &c.
Report of some Galvanic Experiments to determine the existence or non-
existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of
the Mountain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston
Moor, by H. L. Pattinson, Esq.
Report respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations
kept in Scotland at the expense of the British Association, by Sir David
Brewster, K.H., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E.
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British
Association at their Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle.
Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the
Plymouth Dockyard, Devonport, by W. Snow Harris, Esq., F.R.S.
1840.
Report on Professor Whewell's Anemometer, now in operation at Ply-
mouth, by W. Snow Harris, Esq., F.R.S., &c.
Report on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the London Com-
mittee of the British Association for 1839-40.
An Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry, by Professor Schénbein
of Basle.
Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt,
clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and
Steel, by Robert Mallet, M.R.I.A., Ass. Ins. C.E.
Report on the Observations recorded during the Years 1837, 1838, 1839,
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical
Institution, Birmingham, by A. Follett Osler, Esq.
Reportrespecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept
at Inverness and Kingussie, at the Expense of the British Association, from
Nov. Ist, 1848, to Nov. Ist, 1839, by Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S., &e,
Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Diy, Vertebrata. Drawn up, at the re-
quest of the British Association, by William Thompson, Esq. (Vice-Pres, Nat.
Hist. Society of Belfast), one of the Committee appointed for that purpose.
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-tubes,
by Charles J. B. Williams, M.D., F.R.S.
Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on the Preservation
of Animal and Vegetable Substances, by the Rev. J. S. Henslow, F.L,S.
1841.
On the Tides of Leith, by the Rey. Professor Whewell, including a com-
munication by D. Ross, Esq,
On the Tides of Bristol, by the Rev. Professor Whewell, including a com-
munication by T. G. Bunt, Esq.
On Whewell’s Anemometer, by W. S. Harris, Esq.
On the Nomenclature of Stars, by Sir John Herschel.
On the Registration of Earthquakes, by D. Milne, Esq.
On Varieties of the Human Race, by T. Hodgkin, M.D.
7 RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xix
On Skeleton Maps for registering the geographical distribution of Animals
or Plants, by — Brand, Esq.
On the Vegetative Power of Seeds, by H. E. Strickland, Esq.
On Acrid Poisons, by Dr. Roupell.
Supplementary Report on Waves, by J. S. Russell, Esq.
On the Forms of Ships, by J. S. Russell, Esq.
On the Progress of Magnetical and Meteorological Observations, by Sir
‘John Herschel.
On Railway Constants, by Dr. Lardner.
On Railway Constants, by E. Woods, Esq.
‘On the Constant Indicator, by the Rev. Professor Moseley.
1842.
On the Progress of simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions, by Sir John Herschel.
On the Meteorological Observations made at Plymouth during the past
year, by William Snow Harris, F.R.S.
On the Growth and Vitality of Seeds, by H. E. Strickland, F.G.S8.
Reports of Committee on Railway Sections, by Rev. Dy. Buckland and
Mr. Vignoles.
On the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances; by C. C. Ba-
bington, F.L.S.
On the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of
Plants, by Robert Hunt.
- On the Strength of Iron, by Wm. Fairbairn.
Second Report of the Committee for registering Earthquakes, by David
Milne, Esq.
On the Constant Indicator, by Professor Moseley.
On the Form of Ships, by John Scoti Russell, M.A.
On Zoological Nomenclature, by H. E. Strickland, F.G.S.
On Vital Statistics, by Colonel Sykes, and the Committee on that subject.
Provisional Reports.
1843.
Third Report on the Action of Air and Water on Iron and Steel, by R.
Mallet, M.R.LA.
Report of Committee for Simultaneous Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
operation.
Report of Committee for Experiments on Steam Engines.
Report of Committee for Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds.
Report on Tides of Frith of Forth and East Coast of Scotland, by J. 8.
Russell, M.A.
~ Report of Committee on the Form of Ships.
Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines, by J. Blake, M.R.C.S.
Report of Committee on Zoological Nomenclature.
Report of Committee on Earthquakes.
Report of Committee on Balloons.
Report of Committee on Scientific Memoirs.
- Report on Marine Testacea, by C. W. Peach.
___ Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aigean Sea, by Professor
_ Forbes.
Report of the Excavation at Collyhurst near Manchester, by E. W.
_ Binney.
Provisional Reports.
Concluding Report of Railroad Section Committee.
Xx “REPORT—1843. :
Recommendations adopted by the General Committee at the Cork Meeting
in August 1843.
Resolved, on the motion of the Rev. Dr. Robinson, seconded by the
Marquis of Northampton. That the British Association for the Advancement
of Science return their thanks to Her Majesty’s Government for the liberal
manner in which they have granted assistance to the Association, for publish-
ing Catalogues of Stars, by placing £1000 at their disposal for that purpose.
Resolved,—That the thanks of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science be given to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland for the early com-
munication of Copies of the recent Census, presented to the Association ;
together with a strong expression of their approbation of the form in which
the same is constructed, as a model for similar works.
That an application be made on the part of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science, to the Master-General of the Ordnance, en-
treating his assistance in the Experiments with Captive Balloons. A Com-
mittee, consisting of the Marquis of Northampton, Lord Adare, and the
Dean of Ely, to make the application.
That application be made to Government to give its aid in the publication
of Professor E. Forbes’s Researches in the /Egean Sea (on the same plan as
the publications of Mr. Darwin, Dr. Smith, and Captain Belcher), those
Researches having been made while he was engaged as Naturalist in the Go-
vernment Hydrographical Survey in the Mediterranean.
Resolved,—That application be made to Her Majesty’s Government for
the insertion of Contour Lines of Elevation on the Ordnance Maps of Ire-
land, such lines being of great value for engineering, mining, geological and
mechanical purposes: and that a Committee, consisting of the Earl of Rosse,
the Marquis of Northampton, and John Taylor, Esq., be requested to make
the application.
Publication of the Report on the Forms of Ships. That the Committee, con-
isting of the Dean of Ely, John MacNeill, Esq., Col. Sabine, and John Tay-
lor, Esq., be requested to examine and consider the matter contained in the
Report on the Form of Ships, and report upon the same, with a view to the
publication of the whole or such parts of the same as to them may seem
advisable: and that the Committee be requested further to consider and re-
port upon any mode by which a publication, such as they may judge fit to be
made, may be accomplished. '
That it appears to the Committee highly desirable for the improvement of
Science and Art in the City of Cork, and its neighbourhood, that the Royal
Cork Institution should be restored to a state of efficiency; and that the
officers of the Association be requested to support an application to Her
Majesty's Government, for such assistance as may be necessary for that pur-
pose.
ee ae
Recommendations for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money.
That the Committee for revising the Nomenclature of Stars, consisting of
Sir John Herschel, the Rev. W. Whewell, and Mr. Baily, be re-appointed.
That Professor Bache be requested to proceed with his Report on Ame-
rican Meteorology, and if possible, to present it at the next Meeting of
the Association.
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XX1
-That applications be made— .
To Mr. Airy, requesting him to furnish the Second Report on the progress
of Astronomy, if possible, by the next Meeting of the Association.
To Professor Wheatstone for his Report on Vision, to be presented, if
possible, at.the next Meeting.
To Mr. Hodgkinson for his Report on the Resistance of the Atmosphere,
to be presented, if possible, at the next Meeting of the Association.
To Professor Kelland for his Report on the Undulations of Fluid and Elastic
Media, to be presented, if possible, at the next Meeting of the Association.
To Mr. Fox Talbot for his Report on Photography and its Applications,
to be presented, if possible, at the next Meeting of the Association.
To Professor Phillips for his Report on the Structure and Colours of
Clouds, to be presented, if possible, at the next Meeting of the Association.
To Dr. Lloyd for his second Report on Physical Optics, to be presented,
if possible, at the next Meeting of the Association.
To Dr. Richardson for a Report on the State of our Knowledge of the
Fishes of the Chinese Seas.
To Mr. H. E. Strickland for a Report on the present State of our Know-
ledge of Ornithology.
To Mr. Blackwall to enlarge his Report on the Palpi of Araneidea, so as to
include in a condensed form a notice of the Habits and Structure of the entire
tribe.
To Mr. Alder and Mr. Hancock for a Report on the British Nudibranchiate
Mollusca.
To Mr. Blake fora Report of his Researches on the Physiological Action of
Medicines.
That Mr. Fairbairn, Mr. Houldsworth, Mr. Hodgkinson, and Mr. Buck, be
requested to continue their investigations on the Consumption of Fuel and the
Prevention of Smoke.
Recommendations of Special Researches in Science, involving Grants of
Money.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
That Sir David Brewster be requested to. continue till Nov. 1, 1843, the
hourly observations on the Thermometer, Barometer and Anemometer, and
that a sum not exceeding 12/. be placed at the disposal of the Council of the
British Association for that purpose.
That Mr, William Snow Harris be requested to complete the Meteorolo-
gical Observations at Plymouth, with 35/. at his disposal for the purpose.
__ That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Dr. Robinson, Col. Sabine,
and Mr. Wheatstone, with 100/. at their disposal for the purpose of conduct-
| ing experiments with Captive Balloons, on the Physical Constitution of the
_ Atmosphere.
__ That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Sir John Herschel, Dr. Whe-
well, The Dean of Ely, Professor Lloyd, and Colonel Sabine, with 50/. at their
} disposal, for the purpose of Magnetic and Meteorological co-operation,—and
} that this Committee be authorized to superintend the reduction of Meteoro-
logical Observations formerly conducted by Sir J. Herschel.
_ That Sir D. Brewster be requested to investigate the action of different
bodies on the Spectrum, with 10/. at his disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Colonel Sabine, Dr. Robin-
son, Sir John Herschel, Professor Wheatstone, Professor Owen, Professor
T, Graham, Professor Miller, and Sir William Jardine, with 202. at their
1843. c
XXil REPORT—1843.
disposal for the purpose of superintending the translation and publication of
Scientific Memoirs.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Mr. Baily, and Dr. Robin-
son, with 650/. at their disposal for the purpose of publishing the British
Association Catalogue of Stars, (500 copies). >
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Sir Thomas Brisbane, and
Mr. J. S. Russell, with 100/. at their disposal, for the purpose of completing
the Observations on Tides on the East coast of Scotland.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Professor Wheatstone, and
Colonel Sabine, with 30/. at their disposal for the purpose of experimenting
on Subterranean Temperature.
KEW OBSERVATORY.
That the sum of 200/. be placed at the disposal of the Council for the pur-
pose of maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
That a Committee be re-appointed, consisting of Dr. Kane, Dr. Schunk,
and Dr. Playfair, with 10/. at their disposal for the purpose of examining the
History of Colouring Matters.
That a Committee be re-appointed, consisting of Dr. Kane, Dr. Schunk,
and Dr. Playfair, with 10/7. at their disposal for the purpose of Inquiries into
the Chemical History of Tannin.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Mr. R. W. Fox, and Mr. Ry
Hunt, with 10/. at their disposal for the purpose of continuing Researches on
the Influence of Light upon Plants.
GEOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
That Mr. Oldham be requested to undertake experiments on Subterranean
Temperature in Ireland, with 10/. at his disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of the Marquis of Northampton,
Dr. Buckland, Mr. Murchison, Mr. John Taylor, Sir H. T. De la Beche, and
Mr. Vignoles, with 100/. at their disposal for the purpose of making geolo-
gical Sections of Railway Cuttings.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Professor Owen, Sir Philip
Egerton, Dr. Buckland, and Mr. Murchison, with 100/. at their disposal for
the purpose of advancing our knowledge of the Fossil Fishes of the London
Clay, and other Eocene Formations of Great Britain.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Rev. W. Whewell, Sir H. T.
De la Beche, and Professor Phillips, with 202. at their disposal for the pur-
pose of examining the state of the reference Level Marks on the line sur-
veyed by Mr. Bunt in Somerset and Devon, and of restoring them where
necessary.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Mr. David Milne, and
Mr. Duncan Maclaren, with 20/. at their disposal for the purpose of esta-
blishing standard Level Marks on such parts of the Coasts of Scotland as they
may think fit, with a view of ascertaining the Oscillations of the Land, parti-
cularly in reference to the lines of Earthquake Shocks.
GEOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY.
That Dr. Carpenter be requested to draw up a Report on the Minute Struc-
ture of Recent and Fossil Shells by means of the Microscope, with 20/. at his
disposal for the purpose.
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Mr. H. E. Strickland, Dr.
4
.
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XXiii
Daubeny, Professor Lindley, Mr. Henslow, Mr. Babington, Professor Bal-
four, Mr. Mackay, and Mr. D. Moore, with 15/. at their disposal for the
purpose of conducting Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Sir W. Jardine, Mr. Yarrell,
and Dr. Lankester, with 25/. at their disposal for the purpose of investigating
the Exotic forms of the Anoplura,
That Capt. Portlock be requested to Report on the Marine Zoology of
Corfu, with 10/, at his disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Dr. Daubeny, Mr. Babington,
Mr. R. Ball, Professor Apjohn, and Professor Kane, with 10/. at their disposal
for the purpose of investigating the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable
Substances.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Professor Owen, Professor E.
Forbes, Sir Charles Lemon, and Mr. Couch, with 10/. at their disposal for the
purpose of enabling Mr. Peach to continue his researches on the Marine
Zoology of Cornwall and Devon, especially on the development and preserva-
tion of Radiata and Mollusca.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Professor E. Forbes, Mr.
Goodsir, Mr. Patterson, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Ball, Mr. Smith, and Mr. Couch,
with 25/. at their disposal for the purpose of investigating, by means of the
dredge, the Marine Zoology of Great Britain, the illustration of the Geogra-
phical distribution of Marine Animals and the accurate determination of the
Fossils of the Pleiocene Period.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Dr. Hodgkin, Dr. Prichard,
Professor Owen, Dr. H. Ware, Mr. J. E. Gray, Dr. Lankester, Dr. A. Smith,
Mr. Strickland, Mr. Babington, Dr. Scowler, and Mr. Wilde, with 15/. at
ah disposal for the purpose of investigating the varieties of the Human
ace.
MEDICAL SCIENCE. .
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Dr. Sharpey and Mr.
Erichsen, with 10/. at their disposal for the purpose of conducting an ex-
perimental inquiry on the subject of Asphyxia.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
That Mr. J. S. Russell be requested to complete the discussion of the
Bririsu AssociATion Experiments on the Forms of Ships, with 1002. at his
disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson be requested to continue his experiments on
the Strength of Materials and ‘the changes which take place in their internal
constitution, with 100/. at his disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Mr. Fairbairn, Mr. Nasmyth,
Mr. Hodgkinson, and Mr. Lucas, with 50/.at their disposal for the purpose
of completing the experimental investigations on the Changes in the internal
- Constitution of Metals arising from continual Vibration and Concussion.
GENERAL NOTICE.
Gentlemen engaged in scientific researches by desire of the British Asso-
ciation, are requested to observe that by a Resolution of the General Commit-
tee at the Manchester Meeting (1842), all Instruments, Papers, Drawings
and other Property of the Association, are to be deposited in the Kew Ob-
_ Servatory (lately placed by Her Majesty the Queen at the disposal of the
Association), when not employed in carrying on Scientific Inquiries for the
Association; and the Secretaries are instructed to adopt the necessary mea-
sures for carrying this resolution into effect.
c2
XxXiv REPORT—1843,
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the
General Committee, at the Cork Meeting, August 23, 1843, with
the Name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Committee,
is entitled to draw for the Money.
Mathematical and Physical Science.
£
Brews TER, Sir D.—For continuing hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations at Kingussie and Inverness. 12
Harris, W. S.—For completing the Meteorological “Observa-
tions at Plymouth . . 35
Rosrnson, Dr.—For conducting experiments with Captive Bal-
loons.’ “": - 100
HerscuHet, Sir J. For Magnetic and Meteorological Co-ope-
ration. . - 50
Brewster, Sir D.—For investigating the Action "of different
Bodies on the Spectrum .. . > JO
Sasrne, Col.—For superintending the Translation and Publica-
tion of Scientific Memoirs. . . 20
Baty, Francis, Esq.—For the Papheaton Gf the Baan Nee
ciation Catalogue of Stars, (500 copies) . . - 650
BrisBaneE, Sir THomas—For completing the Observations on
Tides of the East Coast of Scotland . . . .. . . - 100
WHEATSTONE, Professor—For experiments on Subterraneous
‘Teniperature | a. so Mie wl We Me sw Cre we et ee
£1007
Kew Observatory.
For maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory. . . £200
Chemical Science.
Kane, Professor—For inyeREMSE the Chemical history of Co-
louring Substances . . . 10
Kane, Professor—For inquiries into the Chemical history of
TARED 6: 5 40.8 viva we
Fox, R. W. Esq. —For continuing Researches on the Tnfluence
of Licht on Plants <.. 6; by s,<0.. wo ipa ie ele Pincal eee
£30
Geological Science.
OLDHAM, , Esq.—For experiments on Subterraneous Tem-
perature inIreland. . . - 10
NortuamprTon, Marquis or—For making Coloured Drawings
of Railroad Cuttings . . - 100
Owen, Professor—For investigation of Fossil Fishes of the
Lower Tertiary Strata. . . .. . LO} PnP ee UE
WuHeEWELL, Rev. W.—For completing level marks in Somerset
and Devon. . . 20
Minne, Davin, Esq. Ba Establishing Stnasea Weve Marks
on the Coast of Scotland $2°.005) 6) a Sor et =o
£250
2) Sr 'S> S6= “Oe TS= soy, Os SOE SS “d
i=)
Onl O° =f)
So - aso ro. 0. ae
d.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10)
eam =o
Grl> ew’ O-2-O4. © pS
GENERAL STATEMENT. XXV
Geology and Zoology.
a Sa. dp
CarrenterR, Dr.—For Researches into the Microscopic struc-
ture of Fossil and Recent Shells. . . . . . .. . .£20 0 0
Hopexin, Dr.—For Inquiries into the varieties of the Human
Ree es Ser iene? Pe OO ta eee a etre alli Lowaken aie
Botany and Zoology.
Srrickxianp, H. E., Esq.—For seperate on the Vitality of
Beis ss ss sina pegs, O
JARDINE, Sir W. Bart. —For researches on pions Anoplura. «25.0, Q
PortLock, Captain—For a Report on the Marine Zoology of
moe. 10 0 0
Davuseny, Dr.—For Investigating the Preservation of Animal
and Vegetable Substances. . . 10 0 O
Owen, Professor,—For Researches on ‘the Marine Zoology of
Cornwall and Devon by Mr. Peach . . 10 0 O
Forses, Professor E.—For Researches on the Geographical Dis-
tribution of Marine Animals. . . 25 0 0
0 0
£110 0 O
Medical Science.
Suarrey, Dr.—For Inquiries into Asphyxia. . . . . . .£10 0 Q
Mechanical Science.
Russe 1, J. S. Esq.—For completing the discussion of the British
Association experiments on the Form of Ships. . . . .100 O O
Hopexinson, Eaton, Esq.—For experiments on the Strength
of Materials . . . - 100 0 0
FAirBAirN, W., Esq. —For “experimental ‘investigations on
Changes in the internal Constitution of Metals. . . . . 50 0 O
£250 0 O
Total of Grants . . . . £1877 0 0
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for
Scientific Purposes.
1834. Hy, $a. Oe
ey See Brought forward 344 14 0
Tide Discussions. . . 20 O O | Refraction Experiments. 15 0 O
1835 Lunar Nutation . . . 60 O O
Tide Discussions. . . 62 0 O pam. san ee hy une cild
BritishFossilIchthyology 105 0 0O £435 0 0
seven O | ae eer
; 1836. Tide Discussions. . . 284 1 0
Tide Discussions. . . 163 © © | Chemical Constants . . 2413 6
BritishFossil Ichthyology 105 0 © | Lunar Nutation . . . 70 0 0
Thermometric Observa- Observations on Waves. 100 12 0
tions, &c. . . . 50 0 0 | lides at Bristol . . . 150 0 O
Experiments on long- Meteorology and Subter-
continued Heat . . 17 1 =O ranean Temperature . 89 5 O
Rain Gauges . . . . 913 0 VitrificationExperiments 150 0 O
Carried forward £344 14 0 Carried forward £868 11 6
xxvi REPORT—1843,
& s. d. £
Brought forward 868 11 6 Brought forward 1353
Heart Experiments . . 8 4 G6 | Heaton Organic Bodies 4%
Barometric Observations 30 0 O | Gases on Solar Spec-
Barometers . 1118 6 trum': ; 22
Hourly Meteorological
£918 14 6 Observations, Inverness
1838. and Kingussie . 49
Tide Discussions. - - 29 O O | Fossil Reptiles. . . . 118
British Fossil Fishes. . 100 O O Mining Statistics. . . 50
Meteorological Observa- £1595
tions and mye ws 1840.
(construction) . . - 100 Bristol Tides . . . . 100
Cast Iron (strength of)- 60 0 O | Subterranean Tempera-
Animal and Vegetable rs ante: allah mays ®
Substances (preserva- Heart Experiments more
tion of). - - 19 110 Lungs Experiments. . 8
Railway Constants AY TB" LO | eas Teteactoma . 6O
Bristol Pydes Sete) ties Ae OO") Gand and Sea. Level . 11
Growth of Plants . 75 0 0 | gtars (Histoire Céleste). oe
Mud in Rivers. . - - 3 6 6 | gtarg (La Caille). .
Education Committee .- 50 0 0 | gang (Catalogue). yet
Heart Experiments . - 5 3 O Atmospheric Air. . . 15
Land and Sea Level. - 267 8 7 | Water on Iron. Ln TG
Subterranean Tempera- Heat on Organic Bodies 7
ture = adi our tage eae Meteorological Observa-
Steam-vessels . 100 0 O dings dite 39
Meteorological Commit. Foreign Scientific Me-
tO CR ebhs She, ey hemes + Oma moirs. . . 112
Thermometers. . , 16 4 0 Working Popelition's Tae
£956 12 2 | School Statistics . . . 50
1839 Forms of Vessels . 184
Fossil Ichthyology . 110 © © | Chemical and Electrical
Meteorological Observa- Phenomena. . » 40
tions at Plymouth. . 63 10 0 | Meteorological Observa-
Mechanism of Waves . 144 2 O tions at Plymouth . 80
Bristol Tides . 35 18 6 | Magnetical Observations 185
Meteorology and Sahten:
ranean Temperature. 21 11 0 1841.
VitrificationExperiments 9 4 7 | Observations on Waves. 30
Cast Iron Experiments . 100 0 O Meteorology and Subter-
Railway Constants 28.7 2 ranean Temperature. 8
Land and Sea Level. . 274 1 4 | 4 tinometers { 10
Steam-vessels’ Engines . 100 0 O Earthquake ahankel 17
Stars in Histoire Céleste 331 18 6 | 4 aiq Poisons. . Se
Stars in La Caille, . - 11 0 0 Veins and je ae wii
StarsinR.A.S.Catalogue 616 6 | yquq in Rivers ae
Animal Secretions . - 1010 0/| Marine Zoology ‘ aE:
Steam-engines in Corn- ae Mena s\n
wall: aon 50 ® © | Mountain Barometers . 6
Atmospheric Airs « + 16,1. 0 Stars (Histoire Céleste). 185
Cast and Wrought Iron. 40 0 0 Stars (La Caille). . 79
Carried forward £1353 0 7 Carried forward £386
£1546
8
0
0
oS
—_—
_
FHnAXowmwonwooonronm oOo
a
oc okt
wlIOOMOMmocoocooso oO FPIOCOSOD SF SCOCOOm mm SCcscooccorFooOoOna co. 'OO
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£
Brought forward 386
Stars (Nomenclature of ) 17
Stars (Catalogue of). 40
Water onIron. . - + 50
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Inverness. .
Meteorological Observa-
tions (reduction of) .
Fossil Reptiles. . -
Foreign Memoirs .
Railway Sections. . .
Forms of Vessels . . «
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth . 55
Magnetical Observations 61
Fishes of the Old Red
Sandstone . . -. - 100
Tides at Leith. . 50
Anemometer at Edin-
20
25
62
88
193
burgh. . . - 69
Tabulating Observations 9
Racesof Men. ...- 5
Radiate Animals . . . 2
£1235
: 1842.
Dynamometric _Instru-
ments. . . - 113
Anopleura Britannize. 52
Tides at Bristol . . 59
Gases on Light. . . . 30
Chronometers. . . . 26
Marine Zoology . .. 1
British Fossil Mammalia 100
Statistics of Education . 20
Marine Steam-vessels’
Engines . . . - 28
Stars (Histoire Céleste). 59
Stars (British Associa-
tion Catalogue of). . 110
Railway Sections. . ~ 161
British Belemnites . 50
Fossil Reptiles (publica-
tion of Report). - 210
Forms of Vessels . . . 180
Galvanic Experiments on
- Rocks. . . 5
Meteorological Experi-
ments at Plymouth
Constant Indicator and
Dynamometric Instru-
Meni. {os sw) 'v) 9O
Carried forward £1366
68
50.
S.
11
19
oOo> @o. NK OSS=-o- oS
coQr
10
bout
So © ©8068 660 CO ocomn
R/O
_
SONS CO DO OMROSDO COC Coan
i
a
on - Ooo. © oS > Sore oo pro ox
lo
£
Brought forward 1366
Force of Wind. . . . 10
Light on Growth of
Seeds + alta. te ‘nnd
Vital Statistics. . . . 50
Vegetative Power of
Seeds". Sani thar enn S
Questions on Human
Race'o! bseewal) “no: 7
£1449
1843.
Revision of the Nomen-
clature of Stars. . . @
Reductions of Stars, Bri-
tish Association Cata-
logue. . 25
Anomalous Tides, Frith
Go bortin. > "sys 4egl au
Hourly Meteorological
Observations at Kin-
gussie and Inverness . 77
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth . 55
Meteorological §Whe-
well’s Anemometer at
Plymouth ... -. 10
Meteorological Observa-
tions Osler’s Anemo-
meter at Plymouth. 20
Reduction of Meteorolo-
gical Observations. . 30
Meteorological Instru-
ments and Gratuities. 39
Construction of Anemo-
meter at Inverness. . 56
Magnetic Co-operation . 10
Meteorological Recorder
for Kew Observatory. 50
Action of Gases on Light 18
Establishment at Kew
Observatory, Wages,
Repairs, Furniture, and
Sundries . - 133
Experiments by Captive
Balloons. . 81
Oxidations of the Rails
of Railways . 20
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles. . . 40
Carried forward £789
17
Co oof
So &: oo
a
XXVili REPORT—1843,
Bia pile a ae
Brought forward 789 8 4 Brought forward 1009 9 8
Coloured Drawings of on British Fossil Mam-
Railway Sections . . 147 18 3 malig). « « «o#%+ 100) 0.0
Registration of Earth- Physiological operations
quake Shocks 30 0 0 of Medicinal Agents. 20 0 O
Uncovering Lower Red Vital Statistics. . . - 36 5 8
Sandstone near Man- Additional Experiments
chester. S60 1G midoriaenlG ontheFormsof Vessels 70 O O
Report on Zoological Additional Experiments
Nomenclature . 10 0 O onthe Formsof Vessels 100 0 O
Vegetative Power of Reduction of Observa-
REE ate os alae oe OB tions on the Forms of
Marine Testacea, (Habits Vessels... oj Vaune Gelusid io OolO
Tl SERPS: q 10 O O | Morin’s Instrument and
Marine Zoology Pyeng” 0 Constant Indicator. 69 14 10
Marine Zoology . . . 21411 | Experiments on _ the
Preparation of Report Strength of Materials 60 0 O
Carried forward £1009 9 8 £1565 10 2
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.
Committees and individuals to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has beem made; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re-
mains disposable on each grant.
Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by the General Committee.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi, London, for
such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the Members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
On Thursday evening, August 17th, at 8 p.m., the President, the Right
Hon. the Earl of Rosse, F.R.S., took the Chair in the Corn Exchange, Cork,
and delivered an Address (see page xxix.).
On Saturday evening, August 19th, in the Corn Exchange, Professor Owen
delivered a discourse on the Dinornis of New Zealand.
On Monday evening, August 21st, in the same Room, Professor Forbes
stated the result of his recent Surveys of Distribution of Animal Life in the
fEgean Sea.
On Wednesday, August 23rd, at 8 p.m., the Concluding General Meeting
of the Association took place in the Corn Exchange, when Dr. Robinson
delivered an account of the principles of construction employed in the Great
Reflecting Telescopes of the President, the Earl of Rosse. A synoptical
statement of the grants of money sanctioned at the Meeting was presented to
the Members.
-
ADDRESS
BY
THE EARL OF ROSSE,
GENTLEMEN,—I am sure no one can feel more sensible of the kindness of
my noble friend, in condescending to notice my very humble exertions in the
cause of astronomical science, and no one more conscious that the compliment
so flattering is undeserved, and, I must say, that I should be but too happy were
it now in my power to resign into his abler hands those duties which have
just devolved upon me; for in that case I am sure the Association would
have nothing to desire. But as that is impossible, and as it has been of late
the practice for those who have occupied the position in which I find myself
most undeservedly placed, to offer a few observations on the objects of the
Association at the first General Meeting, I feel I have no other course but
to solicit most earnestly your kind indulgence. Such a request you would
not perhaps cgnsider unreasonable from any one who laboured under the
embarrassment necessarily arising from the consciousness of his own inability
adequately to discharge the duties entrusted to him, augmented, as it must be,
tenfold, by that awe which it is impossible not to feel in the presence of men
the most distinguished in the varied departments of human knowledge. But
perhaps, in this instance, your kindness will allow there is an additional claim
to your indulgence. This very embarrassing position is not of my own
seeking. To have aspired to the high honour of presiding at one of your
meetings, would have been an act of presumptuous vanity, which I never did,
which I never could have contemplated. A communication from Manches-
ter, announcing that the Association had actually made their selection, was
the first intimation which reached me that my name had even been thought
of. Under such circumstances, to have declined the honour, and to have
shrunk from the responsibility, would, in my opinion, have been inconsistent
with proper respect: it remained, therefore, but to endeavour to do the ut-
most, trusting that your kindness would overlook all omissions, and that the
vigilance of the many most able men who guide the proceedings of the
Association would detect and correct all important errors. But, however
arduous the task, however painful the duty of addressing a meeting so con-
stituted as this is, it is impossible not to participate in the gratification which
all must feel in seeing so many men of eminence assembled to assist each
other in promoting objects of such deep and general interest. The man of
the world who, busied in the changing scenes of life, watches with fixed at-
tention the actions of men, while he occasionally perhaps casts a passing glance
at science as it happens to present to him some new wonder—he cannot fail
to look with surprise, and, I may add, with gratification, at a meeting so
large (and in this country too), from which politics are altogether excluded.
Here he will see no angry conflict of passions, none of that feeling of bitter-
ness and animosity, which never fails to attend the contests between man
and man, between different classes in the same country, or between different
XXX REPORT—1843.
nations: all proceeding from the same cause, or nearly so—a struggle for
power; in other words, a struggle for dominion over man, and through him
over the material things of this world. But in such a contest, what is gained
on one side must be lost on the other. Here, on the contrary, however much
may be gained, there can be no loss to any one. This is no paradox; for
here the object of the contest is to increase man’s knowledge, and with it at
once his power over the material things of this world. It is plain, therefore,
that in the objects we have in view, all have an equal interest ; that the con-
test we are engaged in is one of friendly rivalry, all competing in their
efforts to promote that knowledge, that science, which has been given to us
as the reward of industry, and by which the gifts of a bountiful Providence
may be increased and improved, for the benefit of man, to an extent almost
unlimited.
But, Gentlemen, there are perhaps many here who have not been present
at other meetings of the Association, who know nothing of the objects actu-
ally accomplished by it, and who are not acquainted with the records of its
proceedings annually published. The question, therefore, may be asked, Does
this Association actually promote the advance of science, and if so, by what
means ?
For a complete, detailed and triumphant answer to such a question, I must
refer to the printed Reports of the proceedings. It would be unpardonable
on my part to take up your time in endeavouring to perform a task, no doubt
imperfectly, which has been achieved in the most complete manner by the
very able men who on former occasions have undertaken it, I shall there.
fore only mention, that original researches in various departments of science,
and on a great scale, have been carried on by the Association, upon which
large sums have been expended under the most skilful management, and
with very important results. The sum so expended exceeds 8000/. Much
also has been accomplished for science, by the resources of the State applied
under the advice of the Association; and within a few days it has been
officially announced that the sum required for an important astronomical ob-
ject, the publication of the Observations of Lacaille and Lalande, has been
granted by Government.
For the previons reduction of the observations we are indebted to the
zeal, ability and public spirit of Mr. Baily and Mr. Henderson, two members
of the Association, who gave their services gratuitously, and took upon
themselves the laborious duty of superintending the work. The actual ex-
pense incurred, amounting to 1400/., was defrayed out of the funds of the
Association.
I am also happy to be enabled to announce, that with respect to another
great undertaking you all have heard of, which has been carried on at the
public expense, under the gratuitous superintendence of a distinguished phi-
losopher*, a most favourable notice has been published by a foreign geo-
metrician of eminence: that notice, or essay, perhaps I should call it, will
appear translated in the next number of the Scientific Memoirs. I regret
I have not been able to procure a copy of the original essay, and therefore
cannot say anything more precise about it; still I cannot refrain from men-
tioning it as a subject of much interest in the scientific world. In addition
to the researches carried on by the Association, much has been done to aid
research. A very important series of papers has been written and published
in the annual volumes, under the head of “ Reports on Researches in Science.”
Each of these Reports is, in fact, a complete and accurate general view of
the actual state of that science, or branch of science, to which it refers,
* Mr. Babbage.
ADDRESS. XXXI
briefly, but profoundly, touching upon every point of interest, so that the
man about to undertake the task of endeavouring to advance any particular
branch of science may at once, by referring to one of these Reports, know
where to look for that information which is indispensable to success, namely,
an exact knowledge of all that has been done by others.
These Reports are so numerous, and embrace so wide a field, that to give
any analysis of them within reasonable limits, would be impossible; and to
form an adequate estimate of their importance, it is absolutely necessary to
examine them in detail, just as they have been published. However, it ap-
pears to me, that without presupposing any knowledge whatever of these
matters, or of the past history of this Society without assuming that it has
in any one instance effected, by joint co-operation, important and laborious
researches in the cause of science, still that, even to a person who will not
take the trouble of inquiring and informing himself, an answer to the question,
Does the Association advance science ? may be returned, short but conclusive.
The answer I should give would be this : I appeal to the experience of every
man at all conversant with the history of science, and with the working of
scientific societies, whether it is not an indisputable fact, proved by experi-
ence, that all such societies, when properly conducted, are powerfully in-
strumental in promoting the advance of science.
Unfortunately, it sometimes happens, that when a new society springs up,
it in some degree interferes with a society previously existing. This Asso-
ciation, however, interferes with no other society, and therefore, setting aside
the great objects actually accomplished, far beyond the pecuniary resources
of other societies, and for which I take no credit, because I presume for a
moment they are unknown, it appears to me, nevertheless, to follow irresist-
ibly, that this Association, acting precisely as other learned societies do—
using the same means, and exerting a similar indirect influence, must like-
wise, just as they are, and on a scale just proportioned to its magnitude, be
eminently useful in urging on the advance of science.
It may, perhaps, be worth while to inquire for a moment in what way the
associations of scientific men promote science. The inquiry, however, can-
not alter the fact that they do so, for that fact is based on experience. There
are many and very obvious ways in which they do so. I shall mention but
one.
The love of truth; the pleasure which the mind feels in overcoming dif-
ficulties ; the satisfaction in contributing to the general store of knowledge ;
the engrossing nature of a pursuit so exalted as that of diving into the won-
ders of the creation ; all these are very powerful incentives to exertion; and
under their influence great works have been undertaken in the cause of
science, and carried through to a successful termination ; but I believe few
will be disposed to deny that further inducements must be highly useful.
Let it be for a moment recollected, that where any, even the most trifling,
step in advance has been gained, except perhaps the accidental discovery
of a simple fact, there has usually been a long and laborious course of
previous preparation. It has been necessary, even in the more popular sci-
ences, to know accurately, first, what had been done by others; to see di-
stinetly the boundary line between the known and the unknown, before there
was the least chance of effecting anything; and in the higher departments
of science such is the time to be expended, so great the toil to be endured
in ascending to that elevation, from which the difficulties to be encountered
but just begin to appear, that the task is one to which the undivided energies
of man exerted for many years are no more than commensurate.
But the necessary preparations accomplished, then the real difficulties com-
XXxXil REPORT—1843.
mence. Some perhaps apparently new principle suggests itself; it is fol-
lowed, with great expenditure of time and labour, to its remote conse-
quences, and it turns out to be perfectly barren and worthless.
One disappointment succeeds another, and years of toil pass away and no
result. Under these trying circumstances the associations of scientific men
afford their friendly aid; they soothe disappointment, excite hope, and pre-
pare the way for redoubled exertion; they call into active existence that
principle which has been implanted in our nature for the noblest purposes—
the legitimate ambition of meriting and receiving the approbation of our
friends and associates. In the ordinary circle of acquaintances, the man en-
gaged in scientific pursuits will find very few, if any, who can understand
and appreciate his labours ; but in such associations as this, there are always
many who see exactly the object aimed at, the difficulties to be encountered,
and who are ready to acknowledge with gratitude every successful effort in
the cause of science.
It is thus, without having recourse to other considerations, that I account
for the fact, that the associations of scientific men, even when they employ
no large funds, and perform no gigantic labours, as this Society does, still, by
their indirect action, accelerate very greatly the progress of scientific dis-
covery.
But this Association performs other important services. It appears to me —
to diffuse over scientific inquiry (if I may so express myself) a salutary in-
fluence—a healthy vigour of action. What more calculated to dispel that
feeling of languor and weariness, the consequence of excessive mental labour
long continued, than the freshening excitement of an interchange of ideas
with men to whom the same course of research had long been an object of
interest? What more likely to extinguish any petty jealousy which might
arise—and scientific men, like other men, have their weaknesses sometimes,
—than to bring all the parties together in friendly intercourse, where they
cannot but feel they have a common object, and are working in a common
cause—the discovery of truth?
Again: should the mind, pursuing in retirement some single scientific ob-
ject, raise up to itself notions exaggerated and unreal, of the importance of
that object, and then, elated and misled by some trifling success, should it
throw off the garb of humanity, the characteristic of science pursued in a
proper spirit, what more calculated to dispel the illusion than these meetings,
where the man, however eminent in that branch of science to which he may
have devoted his almost exclusive attention, will be sure to find others im-
mensely his superior in every other department of human knowledge? And
it is not merely for the sake of individuals engaged in the pursuit of science
that these consequences are so valuable; it is also for the sake of science
itself.
It is important that science should stand before the world in an aspect
which is not forbidding, and we may rest assured of this, that wherever there
may be the least trace of petty jealousy, of prejudice, or of pride, the world
will not be slow to discover it; and as science claims as one of its noblest
attributes, the power of exalting and enlarging the mind, and of arming it
against such weaknesses, it will thus be exposed to the charge of having pre-
ferred pretensions to which it has no just title.
I will not detain you by enlarging upon the other obvious beneficial con-
sequences of these meetings, such as the opportunities they afford for the
free discussion of questions upon which the concentrated knowledge of in-
dividuals may be brought to bear with so much success—the opportunities
they afford for the formation of new friendships between scientific men, often
ADDRESS. XXXiil
fraught with consequences very important to science, and the necessary ten-
dency of them to encourage a taste for science. Upon all these I will
abstain from offering any observations. There is, however, one consequence
of these meetings, to which, if you will permit me to detain you a moment
longer, I will just advert.
It has been remarked by a modern traveller of considerable depth of ob-
servation, that he had always found in the children of the fields a more de-
termined tendency to religion and piety than amongst the dwellers in towns
and cities, and that he conceived the reason to be obvious—that the inhabit-
ants of the country were less accustomed to the works of man’s hands than
to those of God. May not the observation be of more extensive application
than at first sight appeared? and if it be true that where we dwell con-
stantly in large cities the mind is liable to be led astray by the habitual con-
templation of the works of man, forced upon it imperceptibly by the con-
tinual succession of ideas—all of the same character—all originating in ob-
jects which have been shaped and fashioned by man, may it not also be true
that it is equally liable to be led astray where it concentrates its whole atten-
tion, and exerts its whole energy without relaxation in the contemplation of
the greatest of all human works, that which the labour of so many centuries
has raised up—the structure of the abstract sciences? And if that be so,
what more calculated to unbend the mind, and to divert for a season the
current of ideas into other channels, than these periodical meetings, where,
in the proceedings of every section, matter will be found of the deepest in-
terest to every true philosopher; and where, however dissimilar the facts,
however varied the inferences, the result will everywhere be still the same—
that of putting forward more prominently in bold relief the wonderful works
of creation? It appears to me, if I may presume to offer an opinion on such
a subject, that the continual progress of discovery is destined to answer
objects far more important than the mere improvement of the temporal con-
dition of man. Were there a limit to scientific discovery, and had we reached
that limit, we shouldbe in the condition of a man who, with the most splendid
landscape before him, was insensible of its beauty because the charm of
novelty had passed away. Each successive discovery, as it brings us nearer
to first principles, opens out to our view a new and more splendid prospect,
and the mind, led away by its charms, is carried beyond and far above the
petty and ephemeral contests of life; but the more rapid the discoveries are,
the more powerful the charm, and therefore great is the motive for exertion ;
and in labouring in this cause there is this gratifying reflection, that our
labours cannot injure our successors, for the region of discovery is rich be-
_ yond the powers of conception; and however much we may draw from it
we shall not leave its treasures exhausted—no, not even diminished, because
they are infinite. This Association has already accomplished much; I feel
persuaded it will accomplish much more; but of this we may rest assured,
that however long it may endure, and I see no principle of endurance which
_ other societies have that is here wanting, it will find an ample and an en-
larging field of useful employment.
XXXIV REPORT—1843.
Report OF THE CouNcIL TO THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE.
1. The Local Secretaries for the Cork Meeting having stated to the
Council the expediency of appointing an additional resident Local Secretary
to assist in the arrangements for that meeting, and having named William
Clear, Esq. of Cork as a very desirable person to fill the office, the Council
appointed Mr. Clear one of the Local Secretaries for the Cork Meeting.
2. The following Resolution, passed at a Meeting of the General Com-
mittee held at Manchester on the 29th of June 1842, was communicated to
the Council by the General Secretaries, viz.i—
“ That the President and Officers of the British Association, with the
assistance of the Marquis of Northampton, the Dean of Ely, Sir John
Herschel, and Francis Baily, Esq., be a Committee to make application
to Government to undertake the publication of the Catalogue of Stars
in the Histoire Céleste of Lalande and of Lacaille’s Catalogue of the
Stars in the Southern Hemisphere, which have been reduced and pre-
pared for publication at the expense of the British Association; and
that the President and Council of the Royal Society be requested to
support the application. The Dean of Ely to be the Convener of this
Committee.”
A Report in conformity with this Resolution,—requesting the co-operation
of the Royal Society in an application to Government to defray the expenses
of the publication of these Catalogues,—having been prepared by the Com-
mittee appointed for that purpose, was approved by the Council; and the Dean
of Ely, Chairman of the Committee, being also a Member of the Council of
the Royal Society, was requested to present the same to the President and
Council of the Royal Society in the name of the British Association.
The President and Council of the Royal Society having declined to accede
to this request, the following application to Government from the British
Association alone was approved by the Council and transmitted by the
General Secretaries to Sir Robert Peel.
(Letter No. 1.)
“2 Duke Street, Adelphi, April 6, 1843.
“ Sir,—We beg leave most respectfully, on behalf of the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, to solicit the aid of Her Majesty’s Go-
vernment in the publication of the following works :—
“ The first is the Catalogue of the Stars in the Histoire Céleste of Lalande
exceeding 47,000 in number, which have been reduced under the superin-
tendence of Mr. Francis Baily.
“The second is the Catalogue of Lacaille’s Southern Stars, exceeding
10,000 in number, which have been reduced, catalogued, and prepared for the
press under the superintendence of Professor Henderson, the Astronomer
Royal of Scotland.
“ The expenses already incurred in these reductions exceeding £1400, have
been entirely defrayed from the funds of the British Association, at whose
request they were undertaken. The further charge required for printing and
publishing these Catalogues would not exceed £1000.
“The British Association at their last Meeting at Manchester considered
their funds inadequate to meet this charge, being already pledged to a very
large amount for the publication of the extended Catalogue of the Astrono-
mical Society, and for various important scientific researches and experiments ;
and they consequently requested the General Secretaries, the Dean of Ely,
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., the Astronomer Royal, and Mr. Francis
Baily, to apply to Her Majesty’s Government for a grant of the requisite funds.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. XXXV
“Tn virtue of this commission we venture most respectfully to beg, ‘ that
Her Majesty’s Government may be pleased to place a sum not exceeding one
thousand pounds at the disposal of Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., and Mr.
Francis Baily, towards defraying the expenses of printing the copies of the
reduced catalogues of Lalande and Lacaille, to be disposed of in such manner
as the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury may direct.’
“We beg to assure you, Sir, that we consider the speedy publication of
these Catalogues as of great importance to the progress of Astronomy, as
furnishing the best means of comparing the positions of the stars of the two
hemispheres at distant intervals of time, and of thus ascertaining the minute
changes which many of them have undergone.
“We have not ventured to intrude upon your valuable time by asking for
the favour of a personal interview, but if you should consider any further ex-
planation necessary, we shall be ready to wait upon you at any time you may
appoint. ‘“‘ We have the honour to remain most respectfully,
“Your obedient Servants,
(Signed) “ Ropericx I. Murcuison,
«* EDWARD SABINE,
“ GEORGE PEACOCK.
«“ J. F. W. HerscuHe..
“ G. B. Arry.
“ Francis BAIty.”
To the Right Honourable Sir Robert Peel, Bart.,
First Lord of Her Majesty's Treasury.”
This application gave rise to the following correspondence, viz.—
(Letter No. 2.)
‘‘ Treasury Chambers, April 24, 1843.
“ GunTLEMEN,—The Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury have
had under their consideration your letter of the 6th instant, in which you
request that a sum, not exceeding one thousand pounds, may be advanced by
Her Majesty’s Government towards defraying the expense of printing the
copies of the reduced Catalogues of Stars of Lalande and Lacaille, prepared
under the superintendence of Mr. Francis Baily and Professor Henderson.
“ Their Lordships have directed me to state, that they feel it unnecessary
to assure you of their disposition to promote every object of importance to
science which you may consider it essential to make a recommendation to
this Board.
“ Their Lordships, however, cannot but express their regret that they were
not originally apprized of the intention of embarking in the work in question,
or of the probability of the Government being called upon to defray so con-
siderable a proportion of the expense.
“ The inconvenience of being required to defray expenses of works already
commenced, without any previous consideration or concurrence of My Lords,
is very great ; and I am therefore directed by their Lordships to request to be
informed of the circumstances which have rendered the funds of the British
Association incompetent to complete the work which has been commenced,
and what are the other important scientific researches to which you refer in
your said letter as having engaged the funds which would otherwise have
been applied to this object.
\ General Secretaries.
“T am, Gentlemen,
“Your obedient Servant,
“ To the British Association “ C. E. TREVELYAN.”
Sor the Advancement of Science.” ;
XXXVI REPORT—1843.
(Letter No. 3.)
“2 Duke Street, Adelphi, June 10, 1843.
“ Srr,—As one of the General Secretaries of the British Association, I
have the honour to reply to your letter of the 24th of April, addressed to
that body, and to state very briefly the circumstances under which the Re-
ductions of the Stars in the Histoire Céleste of Lalande and in the Calum
Australe Stelliferum of Lacaille, were undertaken by the British Association.
“Grants of money for these works (as well as for a Catalogue of about
8500 stars, reduced up to the present time, to be called the British Association
Catalogue) were voted upon the earnest recommendation of the Committee
of the Mathematical and Physical Sciences in the year 1837, at a period
when the funds of the Association were very considerable from the accumu-
lation of the life subscriptions of its members, and when those funds had not
been seriously reduced by grants for other scientific objects, which have since
occurred, to the amount of nearly £12,000.
‘** The reductions of those stars, when once resolved upon, were prosecuted
with great activity ; and at the last meeting of the Association, held at Man-
chester, Sir John Herschel and Mr. Baily reported that all the three works
were severally completed and ready for the press. The General Committee
voted the requisite sum for the publication of the British Association Cata-
logue, as being a work of the most pressing importance for the purposes of
practical astronomy ; but their funds were found to be inadequate to the pub-
lication of the other two valuable catalogues, consistently with their engage-
ments for grants for other objects, and for the completion of other under-
takings which were in progress. Under such circumstances therefore it was
considered expedient to make an application to Her Majesty’s Government
for the grant of the funds requisite for the completion of these works, which
were considered so important for the interests of astronomy.
“ The Committee were encouraged to hope that such an application would
not be disregarded, from the prompt attention which was formerly paid to an
application, made upon the recommendation of the same Committee for a
grant of funds for the reduction of the Planetary and Lunar Observations
made at Greenwich from the time of Bradley downwards; a vast and import-
ant undertaking, which is now nearly completed under the superintendence of
the Astronomer Royal.
“I beg to forward to you the last volume of the Reports of the British
Association, in which, at pages xxvi. to xxix. of the Introduction, will be found
a statement of the sums actually paid for scientific objects and researches
from the date of its first establishment, amounting in the whole to upwards of
£8300. The existing available property of the Association now scarcely
exceeds £5000, invested in the public funds, which is already pledged to the
extent of £3339 5s. for grants made at the last Annual Meeting at Manchester,
the particulars of which may be seen in pages xxv. and xxvi. of the accom-
panying volume; and this available property may be further reduced by other
claims that may be made on it at the next Annual General Meeting.
“ During the eight years that the Association has been in active operation,
it has appropriated £2200 upon astronomical tables and reductions; £1550
upon the reduction and discussion of observations on the tides; £1400 upon
meteorological and magnetical instruments, observations and reductions ;
£900 upon experiments for determining the best form of vessels, and for
other researches connected with this inquiry; £400 upon experiments on the
manufacture of iron and the strength of materials; and upwards of £5000 upon
experiments and researches on medical, botanical, zoological and various
other branches of science. And it is proper to add that the whole of these
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. XXXVIi
sums have been appropriated without any prospect or intention of remune-
ration to the Association; and that no part of this money is ever applied to
defray the personal expenses, or to compensate for the loss of time and trouble
of those members of the Association by whom these researches or experiments
are undertaken, and who have all rendered their services gratuitously.
“The Committee trust that the preceding statement will be sufficient to
satisfy the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury that the funds of
the Association have been expended, and nearly exhausted, upon objects of
the highest national and scientific importance, and that the present application
to their Lordships for assistance has not been made on slight or inefficient
grounds.
“T beg to add that, in making this application, the British Association
have no intention or wish to derive any benefit or advantage from the print-
ing of the two works in question. They desire to place the whole at the dis-
posal of the Government, to be gratuitously distributed amongst scientific
persons, in the same way as the Greenwich Observations are now disposed of,
or in such other manner as the Government may direct; and their sole wish
is that the two important works, on which so much expense and time and
labour have been already expended, should not be eventually lost to the
public through the want of some further support.
“TJ have the honour to be, &c.,
“C. B. Trevelyan, Esq.” “ EDWARD SABINE.”
(Letter No. 4.)
“‘ Treasury Chambers, Ist August, 1843.
“ GENTLEMEN.—The Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury
have had under their consideration your letter of the 10th June last, in which
you request that a sum not exceeding £1000 may be advanced by Her Ma-
jesty’s Government towards defraying the expense of printing the copies of
the reduced Catalogue of Stars of Lalande and Lacaille, prepared under the
superintendence of Mr. F. Baily and Professor Henderson ; and I am directed
by their Lordships to acquaint you that the necessary directions will be given
for issuing £1000 for the completion of the works in question. I am at the
same time to state, that the compliance with this application must not be
considered as authorising the expectation of any pecuniary assistance in cases
not in the first instance submitted to and approved by My Lords.
“T am, Gentlemen,
“ Your obedient Servant,
“To the British Association (Signed) “C. E. TREVELYAN.”
Sor the Advancement of Science,
2 Duke Street, Adelphi.”
The Council congratulate the General Committee on the ready disposition
which Her Majesty's Government has shown to receive favourably and to
comply with this recommendation made by the British Association on the
behalf of science.
3. The following Resolution of the General Committee at Manchester
was communicated to the Council by the General Secretaries :—
“ That £200 be placed at the disposal of the Council for the purpose
of upholding the establishment in the Kew Observatory. That all
instruments, papers, and other property of the Association be placed in
_the Kew Observatory when not employed in carrying on scientific
inquiries for the Association, and that the Secretaries be instructed to
adopt the necessary measures for carrying this resolution into effect.”
The Council have made the following arrangements for the care of the
1843. d
XXXVI REPORT—1843.
Kew Observatory :—Mr. Cripps, who had charge of the Observatory under
the department of Woods and Forests, remains in the apartments he pre-
viously occupied, but without receiving a salary, undertaking to keep the
house aired and the lower part clean and in good order, the Association being
at the expense of cleansing materials, and of an allowance of fuel and can-
dles, not exceeding in value £15 per annum.
Mr. Galloway has been engaged at a salary of £27 7s. 6d. per annum, with
apartments in the Observatory, fuel and light, to take charge of the rooms
above the basement story, and of the property of the Association placed
therein ; to render general assistance to Members of the Association who
may be prosecuting researches at the Observatory ; and to obey to the best
of his ability whatever instructions he may receive from time to time from
the Members of the Council or other authorised persons.
The Council have ordered a few necessary repairs to be made, including
arrangements for the apartments of Mr. Galloway, and for a spare sleeping
room in case the prosecution of any scientific researches at the Observatory
should render it desirable forany Member of the Association to pass anight there.
The necessary instruments were purchased, and a regular Meteorological
Register was commenced by Mr. Galloway (under the superintendence of
Professor Wheatstone) in November last.
For these various purposes the sum of £133 4s. 7d. has been expended in
the present year out of the £200 placed at the disposal of the Council.
A Report will be presented to the Association by Professor Wheatstone,
descriptive of the Seli-registering Meteorological Apparatus, for which a
special grant of £50 was made to him at Manchester, and which has been
completed and placed in the Observatory.
At the close of the first year, therefore, the Council have to report the
establishment of the following registries, viz—
1. An ordinary meteorological record with standard instruments.
2. A meteorological record with self-registering instruments on a new
construction.
3. A record of the electrical state of the atmosphere.
It is proposed to add to these a registry of the comparative amount of rain
at different heights above the surface, and of the temperature at different
depths beneath the surface, for both which purposes the locality appears
particularly well-suited: statements of the methods proposed to be employed,
and applications for the necessary grants will be brought forward in the
course of the present meeting by Mr. Phillips and Professor Wheatstone.
The Council hope that the General Committee will be satisfied with the
progress which has been made during the past year, towards placing the
Kew Observatory in a state creditable to the Association, and advantageous
to science ; and that, mindful of the circumstances under which the building
was obtained, and of the various problems in experimental philosophy to whose
solution it may be rendered subservient, they will regard favourably the
desire of the Council to embrace every suitable occasion of augmenting and
perpetuating its usefulness.
4. The Council have added the names of M. Bessel of Kénigsberg, M.
Jacobi of Kénigsberg, Dr. Adolphe Erman of Berlin, M. Paul Frisiani, Astro-
nomer at Milan, and Professor Braschman of Moscow, to the list of Corre-
sponding Members of the British Association.
5. It has been notified to the Council that an invitation will be presented
to the British Association in the course of the present meeting, to hold the
Meeting in the year 1844 at York.
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. XXXIX
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Wuratstone, Mr.
Hutton, and the General Secretaries and Treasurer, appointed by
the Council to superintend the establishment of Meteorological Obser-
vations at the Kew Observatory.
THE limited funds at the disposal of the Committee have not allowed them
to carry many of the contemplated objects into effect. The preliminary ar-
rangements have however been completed, and a very perfect and efticient
apparatus for making observations on the electricity of the atmosphere has
been established. ‘The Committee has paid more immediate attention to
this subject on account of its importance in connexion with the system of
simultaneous magnetic and meteorological observations now making on
various points of the earth’s surface, in the recommendation of which the
Association has taken so prominent a part. Hitherto electrical phenomena
have been little attended to at these observatories, from the want of knowing
what instruments to recommend for the purpose, and how to interpret pro-
perly their indications. This want the Committee has every reason to be-
lieve will shortly be supplied and arrangements be made for recording the
electrical changes of the atmosphere at the various stations with the same
regularity and accuracy as the other meteorological phenomena.
The following is a brief notice of the present arrangements.
The dome in which the Equatorial was formerly placed, has been convert-
ed into the Electrical Observatory. A circular pedestal about eight feet in
height is firmly fixed in the middle of the room, and a platform, which is as-
cended by a few steps, surrounds the pedestal, so that the operator standing
upon it shall be at a convenient height to adjust and observe the various in-
struments. At the centre of the pedestal is fixed a strong glass pillar sup-
porting a vertical copper tube tapering upwards ; the length of this conductor
is twenty feet, sixteen feet being elevated above the dome in the open air.
The lower part of the conductor within the dome carries four horizontal
branches placed at right angles to each other; these are for the purpose of
bringing into connexion with the conductor the various electrometrical in-
struments employed. ‘The electricity of the atmosphere is collected by
means of the flame of a lamp kept constantly alight during night and day,
and placed at the upper extremity of the conductor ; by this plan, which Volta
recommended, much more electricity is collected than by means of a metallic
point; the lamp is lowered and elevated when required by means of a cord
and pulley contained within the tube.
The insulation of the conductor is preserved by the effective method pro-
posed by Mr. Ronalds. The insulating glass support has in its interior a
hollow conical space the base of which opens into the pedestal; beneath this
opening is placed a small night-lamp, which heats the air within the cone and
raises the temperature of the glass pillar. The upper part of the external
surface of this pillar is not sufficiently heated to prevent the deposition of
moisture, and is therefore, to a certain degree, a conductor; the lower part
also conducts slightly on account of its elevated temperature; but there is a
zone between these two parts which insulates perfectly on account of the tem-
perature of that part of the surface being sufficient to expel all moisture and
yet not sufficient to enable it to conduct. A conductor thus insulated will
retain its charge for hours together without sensible diminution. —
Another peculiarity and advantage of this method of insulation is, that the
active parts of all the electrometers are suspended from the conductor, and
are therefore uniformly charged, depending for their insulation we “. warmed
xl REPORT—1843.
glass pillar only, and not, as usual, upon separate insulators which dissipate
the electricity unequally.
The instruments which are at present in action are,—lIst, two Volta’s
straw electrometers, one degree of the second corresponding with five degrees
of the first; 2nd, a Henly’s electrometer, one degree of the scale of which is
equivalent to ten degrees of the least sensible of Volta’s electrometers; 3rd,
a modification of Coulomb’s torsion electrometer, which, while it possesses the
sensibility of the most delicate of Volta’s straw electrometers, has a range as
great as the preceding three instruments; 4th, a dry pile electrometer; 5th,
a discharging electrometer for measuring the lengths of sparks; 6th, an at-
mospheric galyanometer with 2400 well-insulated coils, made by Gourjon of
Paris; 7th, Mr, Ronalds’s modification of Landriani’s electrograph, an in-
genious instrument which records, during the absence of an observer, the
electrical states of the conductor, distinguishing the positive from the negative
states, and to a certain degree the variations of intensity. Many other instru-
ments are in progress from which new and useful results are expected, but
which it would be at present premature to mention.
Since the apparatus has been completed the conductor has remained con-
stantly charged, unless purposely discharged, or during the momentary trans-
itions from one electrical state to the other. The electric tensions vary in
serene weather between 3° and 90°, and the diurnal changes are indicated
with great precision. This report is accompanied by a sectional drawing of
the Electrical Observatory, and by a register of observations commenced on
July Ist, and continued regularly for six weeks. Observations made during
the same time with the barometer, pluviometer, thermometer, psychrometer,
Daniell’s and Saussure’s hygrometers, &c., are also annexed to the report.
Report on the Electro-magnetic Meteorological Register.
By Professor Wunatstons, F.R.S,
Tue electro-magnetic meteorological register which I undertook to construct
for the Observatory of the British Association is just completed. I will de-
fer to a future occasion a full account of its mechanism, and of the various
modifications I have devised to render it suitable for the different purposes
required in meteorological investigations ; such an account will more properly
accompany the record of the daily working of the instrument, which I hope to
present at the next meeting of the Association. I will confine my present
report to a concise description of the instrument in its present state, but be-
fore proceeding to this I will briefly mention what it effects.
It records the indications of the barometer, the thermometer and the psy-
chrometer every half-hour during day and night, and prints the results, in
duplicate, on a sheet of paper in figures. It requires no attention for a week,
during which time it registers 1008 observations. Five minutes are sufficient
to prepare the machine for another week’s work; that is, to wind up the
clock, to furnish the cylinder with fresh sheets of paper, and to recharge the
small voltaic element. The range of each instrument is divided into 150
parts; that of the barometer comprises three inches, that of the thermometer
includes all degrees of temperature between — 5° and + 95°, and the psy-
chrometer has an equal range.
The machine consists essentially of two distinct parts: the first is a regu-
lator clock, to which are attached all the regularly recurring movements which
require to be introduced ; the second is a train haying an independent main-
taining power, which is brought into action at irregular periods of time by
the contact of the plunging wires with the mercury of the instruments, as
will be hereafter explained.
ON THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER, xli
The principal regularly recurring actions connected with the clock train
are two: by means of one the plungers are gradually and regularly raised in
the tubes of the instruments during five minutes, and are allowed to descend
during one minute; by means of the other, a small type wheel, having at its cir-
cumference fifteen figures, is caused to advance a step every two seconds, while
another type wheel, having twelve spokes but only ten figures, is caused to ad-
vance one step when the former completes a revolution. The complete revo-
lution of the second type wheel is effected in six minutes, that is, in the same
time occupied by the ascent and descent of the plungers. Thus every suc-
cessive division of the range of an instrument corresponds with a different
number presented by the two type wheels, the same division always corre-
sponding with the same number. The two blanks of the second type wheel
are presented during the return of the plungers, which occupies a minute,
and during which time no observation is recorded.
The breaking of the contact between the plunger and the mercurial column
in an instrument obviously takes place at a different position of the type
wheels, according as the mercury is at a different elevation ; if, therefore, the
types be caused to make an impression at this moment, the degree of eleva-
tion of the mercury will be recorded. It will be seen that observations in
different half-hours are not made at exactly corresponding instants; but this
is of no consequence, as the instruments will not sensibly vary within five
minutes, the greatest possible extent of the deviation.
I will now proceed to describe the means I employ for recording the num-
ber corresponding to the degree of elevation of the mercury. To simplify
the explanation, I will at first suppose the indications of a single instrument
only are to be registered. One end of a conducting wire is connected with
the mercury in the tube of the instrument, and the other end with the brass
frame of the clock, which is in metallic communication with the plunger. In
the course of this circuit an electro-magnet, such as I employ in my electro-
magnetic telegraph, and a single very small voltaic element are interposed.
The electro-magnet is so placed as to act upon a small armature of soft iron
connected with the detent of the second movement. All the time that the
plunger is in the mercury the armature remains attracted, but at the moment
the plunger leaves the mercury the attraction ceases, and the release of the
detent causes a hammer to strike the types and impress them by means of
black copying paper on the cylinder. The armature subsequently remains
unattracted until the plunger descends; immediately before it reascends, a
piece of mechanism, connected with the clock movement, brings the armature
into contact with the magnet, which remains there, in consequence of the
_ recompletion of the circuit, until the contact is again broken.
It might be thought that a separate striking movement and a separate pair
of type wheels would be required for each different instrument; but a very
simple contrivance enables me to register the indications of all the instru-
_ ments, employing for each by means of the same apparatus. For this pur-
_ pose a rheotome is so placed in the voltaic circuit as to divert the current
_ each successive six minutes, so that the circuit shall be completed by a
_ different instrument. Thus, the barometer is registered during the first six
_ minutes of the half-hour, the thermometer during the second six minutes, and
the psychrometer during the third six minutes. Two six-minute spaces are
left for any other two instruments which it may be hereafter desirable to add.
It is not necessary that the completion of the circuit should be effected by
mercury, and there are very few meteorological instruments which cannot
be applied by suitable modifications to this register.
It may be necessary to mention another important point in the construction
xhi REPORT— 1843,
of the machine. As the first type wheel shifts every two seconds, and as the
plunger may leave the mercury at any instant of time, the hammer might
strike during the shifting of the type wheel and produce a blurred or imper-
fect impression ; to obviate this a coutrivance is introduced, for the purpose
of continuing the current for an instant after the plunger leaves the mercury,
whenever the contact is broken at the moment the type wheel shifts. By
means of this addition all the observations are registered with regularity and
distinctness.
The accuracy of the recorded observations is not in the slightest degree
influenced by the rate of going of the clock. Whether the rate be accelerated
or retarded, the same number is always printed for the same degree of ele-
vation of the mercury. The only circumstance affected by the variation of
the time of the clock is the time of the observation.
The elevation of the mercury in the tube by the insertion of the plunger
gives rise to no error, because the observation is recorded only at the moment
the plunger leaves the mercury, and when the mercury is consequently at its
proper level.
A description will also be presented to the Association by Professor
Wheatstone of an Electrical Apparatus which has been established in the
cupola of the Observatory; the cost of this apparatus has been defrayed by
private subscription.
REPORTS
ON
THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or
salt, clear or foul, and of various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron, and Steel. By Ropert Mauer, Mem. Inst. C.E.,
M.R.I_A.
283. Tue first Report upon these subjects which I had the honour of pre-
senting contained a statement of the condition of our knowledge therein up
to that time, and cleared the way by the removal of certain errors as to the
supposed methods of protecting iron from corrosion: it also indicated the
principal directions in which further information was requisite in six deside-
rata which demanded experimental answers.
The second Report supplies information as to three of these, and less com-
pletely as to the remaining three; and as in course of inquiry some other
correlative branches of investigation suggested themselves, so it also enters
pretty fully into the question of the protection of iron from corrosion under
various conditions by the application of zinc in different forms ; of the causes
of variation of specific gravity, and its effects upon the corrodibility of cast
iron; of the comparative durability and best constitution of paints or var-
nishes for the preservation of exposed iron, upon which several experiments
are given; and also gives the first set of tabulated results as to the corrosive
action of air and water upon cast iron under the five several conditions of
experiment. One of the most important objects of those tabulated results
was to determine the actual loss of metal by corrosion in a given time and in
given conditions of most of the principal makes of cast iron in Great Britain,
and hence to find their relative durabilities when used in construction, and
by subsequent discussion of the results obtained to discover, if possible, upon
_ what durability depended, whether upon the nature of the constituents of the
compound alloy known as cast iron, or upon their proportions, or upon either
of these in connection with the state of aggregation of the mass.
The first period of exposure of about eighty-two different sorts of iron
(chiefly cast iron) occupied 387 days, and from this alone the above conclu-
_ sions might have been sought; but it became obvious, in course of inquiry,
that the original state of the metallic surface when first exposed had much to
do with its rate of corrosion, and that this became subsequently modified as
_ it proceeded, and thus that the amount of loss of metal by corrosion might
not follow a law of equidifference, but might increase or decrease in rate upon
continued exposure. To arrive, therefore, at greater certainty in assigning
a the practical engineer the actual loss of metal after long periods of expo-
843. , B
2 REPORT—1843.
sure, and to obtain the amount of this increment or decrement, the whole of
the specimens previously exposed were, after examination and weighing, again
immersed in their respective classes of sea or fresh water, and now, after a
second period of exposure of 732 days, have been again taken up, examined,
and weighed.
284. Since the publication of the second Report these inquiries have also
been extended to wrought iron and steel, of which between twenty and thirty
varieties have been submitted to experiment. These have been immersed
under conditions similar to the cast iron, vizi—
1. In clear sea water, temp, 46° to 58° Fahr.
2. In foul sea water, temp. same.
3. In clear river water, temp. 32° to 68° Fahr.
4. In foul river water, temp. 36° to 61° Fahr.
and for the same period of 732 days. The results are given in the accompa-
nying tables, so that we have determinations from two successive immersions of
cast irons, and from one of wrought iron and steel.
285. In addition, tabulated results will be found of experiments continued
under similar conditions, and for an equally long period, upon wrought iron
coated with zinc by the ordinary zinking process, or “galvanizing ” as it is called,
and upon cast iron protected by the paint of powdered zinc (2nd Rep. 195).
286. Besides the preceding, the results are given of an entirely separate
set of experiments on cast iron, wrought iron and steel, exposed freely to the
weather, and to all the atmospheric influences at an altitude of about fifty
feet above the surface in the city of Dublin. It may be presumed that the
accurate measures, thus for the first time obtained, of the actual metallic loss
by rusting of a great variety of irons in the atmosphere, will not be looked
upon as valueless by the engineer ; and accompanied as they are by the me-
teorological registers kept at the Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin, for the
time of experiment, will enable analogous results to be deduced for other
localities where meteorological registers are also kept sufficiently comparable
for all practical purposes; indeed the climate of Dublin may be viewed as a
tolerably fair average of that of the British Islands,
By a singular chance it happens that in the year 1840 (part of our period
of experiment) the relative quantities of rain falling in Dublin and London
are more than usually regular. There are on the average of six years—
Days of no rain. Fair. No rain and fair.
Tn !Dablinyeai\). bi. eo(1SQtineowed TeonbGrdt. lo oe » BOE
In: London #61.) 6000220 bisve be ve)! TDi se ode sri 280
And the average quantities of annual rain are—
In Dublin 25°874 inches.
In London 21°714: inches.
July and August, which are warm months, are also generally weé months
in Ireland. The actual quantities of rain which fell in Dublin and London
in the two years of experiments were—
1840. 1841,
In Dublin . . 25°788 . . 28°882
In London . . 18184 . . 27°372
The temperatures were—
1840. 1841.
Daily Mean. Max. Min. Daily Mean. Max, Min,
In Dublin . . 50°34 .. 85°0 . . 26°0 50°15 , . 78°0 . . 19°0
In London. . 49°80 . . 83:0. . 21:2 ~ 604% ., 87:0... 149
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 3
The barometric pressures—
fn Dublin ou a 30849 Annual
In London. . . . ~~. . - 29°880 f mean pressures*
All other circumstances being the same, the rate of corrosion of iron exposed
to the ordinary atmospheric influences may be expected to vary in increase
or decrease thus :—
Ist. Directly as the volume of rain and dew falling on it in a given time,
these fluids being supposed to contain similar amounts of combined air
and free oxygen.
Ind. Directly as the elevation of temperature with equal moisture.
3rd. Directly as the barometer pressure.
The two last do not vary enough in our climate to produce very marked
results, and probably the volume of rain and dew in a given time will be a
tolerably exact measure of corrosion in any part of Great Britain.
The rate of corrosion will be rather greater in a crowded city-(ceteris pa-
ribus), and greater over the sea than in the open country, the latter, owing to
the presence of saline particles frequently in the air.
The series of tables is therefore now complete, and I would venture to hope,
present to the engineer sufficient data to enable him to predict the term of
durability and allow for the loss by corrosion of iron in all conditions when
entering into his structures.
Their completion has involved no slight labour, having required more than
five thousand accurate weighings to be made, without reference to other ex-
periments.
287. In all the tables which follow and relate to the second period of im-
mersion of cast iron and the standard wrought iron bar, viz. Tables I., III., V.,
and VII., the dimensions and weight of each specimen are given previous to im-
mersion, its weight after the second exposure to corrosion, and the loss of metal
for a unit of surface ; and by comparing this in every case with the results given
in column 10 of tables of second Report, having regard to the difference in
absolute time of exposure in the first and second periods, the results given in
columns 8 and 9 of this Report have been found, viz. the amounts of incre-
ment or decrement of corrosion of the same surface of the same iron when
exposed at the first and second periods. Of course this information does not
apply to the tables of wrought iron immersed for the first time only, The
other information conveyed will be sufficiently obvious from the headings of
the columns. The amount of corrosion of all the wrought iron and steel
have been referred to the standard bar a 58, so that the whole suite of tables
are comparable. The characters of corrosion of these have also been given
as minutely as brevity permitted, and in a few set words throughout.
Discussing the results given in these tables, we are enabled to draw the
following conclusions as regards, first,
Cast Iron.
288. The rate of corrosion is a decreasing one, at least where the coat of
plumbago and rust first formed has been removed prior to second immersion,
’ which was unavoidable in these experiments; but, as I shall hereafter show,
where this coating remains untouched, the rate of corrosion remains much
more nearly uniform, and is nearly proportionate to the time of reaction in
given conditions. In some cases, however, even with this coating removed,
an increment in the rate of corrosion has taken place; and it is observable
* It is uncertain that the pressures given are strictly the ‘Annual means,” the Dublin
Registers are incompletely reduced.
BQ
4 REPORT—1843.
that this almost uniformly occurs in those specimens which had the stnallest
amount of corrosion at their first immersion. Thus there is a tendency to a
greater equality in the index of corrosion in all the varieties of iron evidenced
by the second than by the first immersion.
289. In the first period of immersion the amount of corrosion of all the
thin cast specimens, those of 0°25 inch in thickness, was much greater than
that of the thick or 1-inch specimens of the same iron in the same conditions,
as remarked (2nd Rep. 178, 179), where this was shown to arise from a less
homogeneity of surface in the thin than in the thicker castings.
‘The difference in their respective rates of corrosion is however much less
on the second period of immersion, which arises from the fact that the re-
moval of metal by the corrosion of the previous immersion had bestowed a
much more uniform or homogeneous surface upon all the specimens.
290. The conclusions previously given therefore (2nd Rep. 175—187), as
to the connexion between the size, form, method of casting, with consequent
surface and amount of corrosion, are not only borne out, but we shall see
reason to conclude that homogeneity of surface and texture, or the contrary,
are by far the most important circumstances which vary the amount of cor-
rosion in cast iron by air and water; that the rapidity of this is not so much
dependent upon the chemical constitution of the metal as it occurs in com-
merce, as it is upon its state of molecular arrangement and the condition of its
constituent carbon.
291. Upon collating the tables of the first and second immersions, it will
be found that the specimens of cast iron, whose analyses are subjoined, are
those presenting the maxima and minima corrosion.
It was to be presumed, that if the extremes of corrosion were connected
with the constitution of the metal, a careful analysis would elicit that upon
which the best qualities depended.
292. TasLrt A.—ANALYSES OF CAST IRONS.
Of Maximum and Minimum Corrosion.
i 2s us 4, 5. I Vs 8. 9. 10. 11.
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Constituents, |Doulais,| Varteg, | Arigna, |Cinderford,| Burchill’s, | Sunmerlie, | Monkland, | Muirkirk,| Muirkirk,| Carron, Hardé
No. 4. | No. 2. | No. 1. No. 1. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 3. No.2. | No. 2. mixel
Hot. Hot. Cold. Cold. Cold. Hot. Hot. Hot. Cold. Cold.
Suspended |] }.99) 1-92| 321/ 223 | 274] 2096 | 281] 341] 428] 310] 0¢
graphite
cap } 213] 054] 0:38) 080] O11 | O34 | O21 | 096] 027] 035| 4¢€
Phosphorus .} 0:21} 0-18)... traces. 0-13 traces. | traces.| traces.| traces.| traces.| trac’
Manganese..| 0:17| traces.| 1:12) traces. 0:41 1:92 2:32 1:52 1:84 | 0-60) Of
Alumina...... ae ie en 0 0:07 0:10 0-04 0:03 | 054] ..
Sulphur ...... aoe +». | traces. ane tes traces. | traces. | traces. Ses soe Pe
Silica ......... 1:21; 3-41) 0-04 1:97 2-00 0:94 1-34 0-89 0:70 | 1:12] 3+
ETON cscsvaeti 95:06 | 93°95 | 95:25) 95-00 94-61 93°77 93°22 93°48 92-83 | 94:29] 92:
100-00 |100-00 |100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 {100-00 |100:
On inspecting these results, however, in connexion with the tables, it will
be evident that corrodibility does not depend upon the proportion of consti-
tuent carbon, and still less upon that of the other foreign matters usually
found in cast iron, but upon the state in which the carbon exists in the com-
pound, upon the state of aggregation of the whole mass, and upon the voltaic
uniformity or otherwise of the surfaces exposed to corrosion. This is practi-
—
’
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 5
cally manifest from the fact before adverted to (2nd. Rep. 179), that the very
same sort of iron corrodes much faster when cooled irregularly and fast than
it does when the contrary has been the case. Of this we have instances in
the irons a 8 and 9, @ 14 and 15, &c., of which analyses are given. Minute
variations in the foreign alloying metals usually found in cast iron do not
appear to effect its corrodibility, and the slight and uncertain difference which
exists between hot and cold blast iron as to corrosion arises rather from their
difference in specific gravity than anything else.
It is observable also that the important improvement of the hot blast has
in this respect little deteriorated the quality of cast iron, as our experiments
(a 26, 27) show that iron made thirty-five years ago in Scotland before its
introduction differs very slightly in corrodibility from that of recent manu-
facture by hot blast.
293. It will be remembered that carbon exists in cast iron in two very
different states, viz. as diffused graphite in a crystalline form and as combined
carbon ; that the dark gray and softer irons contain more of the former, the
brighter and harder irons more of the latter. Now the latter kind have the
property of being much less uniform or homogeneous of surface when cast .
under similar conditions than the former, while the highly graphitic irons,
though more uniform in large specimens, are the least dense and softest in
texture: hence the ultimate choice at which we arrive is, that the bright gray
irons of high commercial marks, the No. 1 and 2, while they are in all other
respects the most valuable for construction, are also the most durable.
294. Voltaic uniformity of surface is best attained by slow cooling of the
metal when cast, and in all small castings will be much promoted by subse-
quent annealing out of contact of air, as in the process ordinarily used for
decarbonizing cast iron to render it flexible and tough.
295. As the analysis of cast iron is admittedly a matter of some difficulty,
to ensure trustworthy results, it may be proper to state briefly the methods
pursued with those above given and with some others which it was needless
here to bring forward.
One of the principal difficulties exists in the determination of the carbon;
for this a number of methods have been proposed. Berzelius burnt the
carbon by passing a slow current of dry oxygen over the pulverized metal,
absorbing the carbonic acid by barytic water. He also proposed a similar
process with dry chlorine, volatilizing the chloride of iron formed; and the
methods by ‘chloride of silver or copper.
Berthier devised a process by dissolving the metal in iodine or bromine,
the object held in view by all being to avoid the loss of carbon which inevi-
‘tably results from solution of the’ metal in acids evolving hydrogen. All
these modes however are so tedious and beset with practical difficulties as to
give uncertain results.
The method adopted by me in most cases was a modification of Regnault’s
process, which consisted in mixing the cast iron finely pulverjzed with about ©
twelve times its weight of chromate of lead properly prepared and mixed
with a little chlorate of potass. This is burnt in an ordinary combustion-tube,
in the remote extremity of which some dry powdered chlorate of potass is
placed, and heated after the combustion has been completed, so as to pass a
current of oxygen over the ignited mass. This precaution is indispensable
with the harder and denser irons containing most of their carbon in combi-
nation. The total amount of constituent carbon is thus obtained and weighed
as carbonic acid ; but this consists of graphite and of combined carbon. By
a separate assay the graphite is obtained by solution of a weighed portion of
the metal in nitric acid, as residue consisting of graphite, extractive matter
6 REPORT—1843.
(from the carbon of combination) and silica, and occasionally some oxides
of combined metals. The residue is filtered and washed, boiled in caustic
potass, by which the silex and extractive matter are taken up; the graphite
remains: it is again washed with dilute muriatic acid, then with water, and
weighed after drying. The difference between this and the total amount of
carbon given by the combustion is equal to the carbon of combination.
For the other constituents, after a preliminary qualitative trial, about 120
grains of the cast iron were dissolved in nitric acid, evaporated to dryness
with a strong heat, and ignited in a platina crucible with three and a half
times its weight of carbonate of soda. After cooling, water is poured over it,
which carries off the excess of alkali and an alkaline phosphate (or sulphate,
if the iron contained sulphur, which should be ascertained beforehand), leaving
the peroxide of iron to be separated by filtration.
The filtered liquor must now be boiled for some time to destroy the man-
ganesiate of potass in solution and precipitate the manganese, again filtered,
nitric acid added evaporated to dryness, and silicic acid separated, if any exist,
on heating with water, after moistening with acid in the usual way.
Ammonia is now cautiously added, and if the iron contained aluminum, a
basic phosphate of alumina precipitates, the solution, again filtered, is acidu-
lated with acetic acid, and the phosphoric acid precipitated by acetate of lead.
From the phosphate the phosphoric acid cannot be estimated with certainty,
it was therefore converted into sulphate of lead, and the phosphoric acid got
from its weight.
The silex and manganese were always obtained by precipitation from the
iron, &c. in separate assays. The method with benzoate or succinate of am-
monia, though inconvenient, is one of the best, where the amount of iron is
considerable. Liebig’s process of separation by boiling with carbonate of
barytes succeeds very well and presents no difficulties, but where the amount
of manganese is so very small in proportion to the iron I preferred the former
mode. The iron itself, from its inconvenient bulk, was generally estimated
from the other constituents.
Separate assays are also best made for sulphur or earthy bases, but as far
as my observation goes, these are extremely rare in British cast iron of
commerce.
296. The usual constituents are carbon, manganese, silicon and phosphoric
acid, and the metal seems to be an indefinite mixture of carburet, silicuret,
and phosphuret of iron and manganese, in all cases of gray iron, while the
perfectly silver-white crystalline cast iron, which contains as much as 5*4 per
cent. of carbon, does seem to be a definite quadri-carburet. This, however,
is of little constructive value.
The observation therefore which has been made, that perfectly definite
combinations are those least liable to change, and thus that definite metallic
alloys are those least subject to oxidation, though true, is of no value to us
here, as no commercial cast iron can be viewed in any other light but that of
a chance mixture of constituents.
297. The view already given (1st Rep. 55) of the causes of tubercular or
local corrosion with concretions of rust, namely, that it is due entirely to want
of homogeneity of surface, is confirmed by the results of the second immer-
sion. The surface of all the specimens was necessarily rendered more uniform
by their first immersion, and accordingly we find much less tubercular cor-
rosion has taken place on the same specimens in the same water during the
second than it did during the previous exposure to corrosion. That alkalinity
of the surrounding fluid is an apparent cause there is no doubt, but it seems
to act only as an agent in increasing the action of partial voltaic currents on
a
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 7
a non-homogeneous surface, and aiding thus in the transfer of the oxides
formed and not dissolved.
298. On opening the several boxes of cast and wrought iron after immer-
sion, the special appearances of each specimen were as before marked, and the
form of corrosion is stated in the respective tables. The phenomena gene-
rally were much the same as in the prior exposure, with the exceptions already
adverted to. All the cast iron pieces in sea water were irregularly covered
with a thin coat of carbonate of lime. .
299. It may be observed, that the decrement of the rate of corrosion of all
the cast iron specimens is considerable in the second immersion. For the
purpose of obtaining the amount of corrosion in the first immersion, the coat
of plumbago and rust formed was necessarily removed, and this, contrary to
what might have been presumed, I am now enabled to prove is the chief cause
of the decrement.
300. Six equal parallelopipeds of the same bright gray cast iron with planed
surfaces were immersed in separate vessels in sea water, slightly acidulated
with muriatic acid, and frequently renewed. Each of the six was removed
at successive intervals of thirty days; the coat of plumbago and rust removed
from the piece, which was dried and weighed. The following table gives the
results. c
The weight of the original pieces was in every case = 1060 grains. The
temperature of the menstruum 54° to 67° Fahr.
TABLE B.
Weight of each Losses of
: Specimen after Me Weight by Weight divided
exposure for the} Corrosion. |Py the times of
No. of |No. of days’) Original Weigh
Speci- | exposure to} of each Specimen |
“men. | Corrosion. | before exposure.
above times. exposure.
Grains.
1 30 1060 1057°2 2°8 2:8
2 60 1060 1054°6 54: 2:7
3 90 1060 1051°2 88 2:9
4 120 1060 1048°1 11:9 3°0
5 150 1069 1045°9 14+] 28
6 180 1060 1041 +4: 186 31
301. The specimens were all cast from the same mass, chosen with special
regard to the uniformity of its texture ; and the results of the preceding table
show, that when the coat of plumbago and rust formed remains untouched
during the whole period of immersion, the amount of this, or the actual
‘loss of metal, is very nearly in proportion to the time of reaction, showing
that the coating of plumbago and peroxide is negative with respect to the
metal and aids in its corrosion. This result however applies much more to
Corrosion in salt than in fresh water, wherein the coat of rust formed is much
harder and less porous; and hence, although still negative to the metal, par-
tially defends it mechanically from corrosion.
802. It may be noticed, that on taking up the kyanized oak-boxes of spe-
cimens from Kingstown Harbour, after two years’ exposure, the timber was
found perforated nearly through a thickness of two inches by the Limnoria
terebrans, whose ravages are thus proved not to be arrested by kyanizing.
303. I now proceed to some notice of the series of experiments in Table
IX., on iron exposed to the atmosphere, &c. at Dublin. The forms in which
cast iron corrodes in water df various sorts have been heretofore minutely
8 REPORT—1843,
described; the action of moist air, however, produces both upon cast and
wrought iron totally different forms of corrosion. Plumbago is not formed
at all; rusting takes place with almost complete uniformity over the whole
surface, and coat after coat of adherent rust is removed; at first each coat
leaves a surface parallel to that of the original metal, but the whole surface
gradually becomes fretted with minute concavities or indentations, at first
scarcely visible, but gradually enlarging by several falling into one, until, after
a lengthened period, the surface, originally flat or plane, is found covered with
nearly hemispherical indentations often a quarter of an inch in diameter.
This takes place whether atmospheric moisture lodges on the surface or not,
and on both cast and wrought iron; its cause seems difficult of explanation.
304. The eudiometrical properties of water, by which, whether in the state
of snow-water, as observed by Boussingault, or of rain, it contains a portion
of free oxygen, render it, as before observed, a powerful agent in promoting
oxidation.
Fresh-fallen rain after a time of drought, especially in cities, comes down
so loaded with free oxygen, carbonic acid and ammoniacal salts, that it produces
instantly a coat of red rust upon any iron placed in contact with it. Pure
water, however large a portion of common air alone it contains, does not seem
capable of producing any immediate oxide higher than the magnetic Fe O
+ Fe, O,. The contrary is the case if carbonic acid or a minute quantity of
any saline substance be in solution.
305. But the deposition of dew under certain circumstances originates the
most immediate and powerful oxidation, as the following observation testifies.
On the 14th March, 1842, the temperature at Dublin, at 12 o'clock at
noon, was high, and the day fine, but the air was nearly saturated with moist-
ure, and dew rapidly collected on the polished parts of a large steam-engine
which stood unfinished in a shady open building, whose temperature was
considerably below that of the open air. In two hours time after, being
wiped clean with cotton waste, all its bright work had a moist coating of red
rust upon it. The rusty moisture could be swept off with the finger.
Whether electrical disturbance of the atmosphere is concerned in this, or
whether occasionally the atmospheric moisture is loaded with saline matter,
especially near the sea, Iam unable to say ; but the fact of such rapid action
of deposited dew is remarkable, and is not confined to a single instance, having
been noticed also to me by engineers as occurring frequently at Liverpool.
306. No second immersion of the cast iron series y was practicable, the
arrangements of the Dublin and Kingstown Railway Company, which enabled
the first to be made, having been unfortunately discontinued.
307. Table XIV. shows the average results of the corrosion of all the cast
irons in water on the second immersion, and those of the corrosion of cast
iron in air (£). The numbers indicate that in general, in moist air, chilled
cast iron corrodes much more slowly than that cast in green sand; the con-
trary being, as before stated, the result in water. '
That the average loss on all varieties of cast iron in moist air is not much
below that which takes place in clear sea water in an equal time, and is much
above that produced by clear fresh water in the same period.
In the case of cast iron with the skin removed by planing, the loss in moist
air is almost precisely the same as in clear sea water.
These facts show that the preservation of structures in iron exposed merely
to the weather is much more important than has been hitherto presumed, and
that without paint or some other more efficient covering, they perish almost
as fast as if in the open sea.
308. We now proceed to some remarks upon the series of experiments upon
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 9°
Wrought Iron and Steel.
The loss of metal by corrosion is, in every sort of water tried, much more
rapid in wrought iron than in cast iron, and the same is the case with steel.
It takes place however much less locally than in cast iron. The particular
phznomena presented by the corroded wrought iron and steel are given in
Tables II., IV., VI., VIII. and X. respectively. In almost every case the fibre
or crystalline texture of the iron becomes developed by the removal of the
alternating portions of metal. This dissection commences usually at the ex-
posed ends of the fibrous crystals, is most rapid in the direction of the prin-
cipal axes of the crystals, and sometimes extends to a great depth.
309. We thus learn that all wrought iron and steel consists of two. or more
different chemical compounds coherent and interlaced, one of which is elec-
tro-negative to the other, the electro-positive body being that which suffers
first from corrosion. The electro-negative portions of the iron or steel re-
main bright and hold a perfect metallic lustre until the whole of the other
portions are removed, or at least are so to a great depth, when they begin
likewise themselves to oxidate. Most of the specimens, when first taken: up,
were found in this state, but soon tarnished on exposure to air. The great
depth to which this removal of alternate layers takes place, is most remark-
able in the case of Damascus iron (a 12) as it is called, made for the ma-
nufacture of fowling-piece barrels, and purposely formed of irons of two or
more different qualities, faggoted together: here specimens of about half an
inch thick, chosen with straight parallel fibres of alternate kinds, had the elec-
tro-positive strata (in § 26) removed quite through, so as to leave a grating
of minute parallel rays that could be looked through.
310. In general, the finer the quality of wrought iron and the more perfectly
uniform its texture, the slower and the more uniform is its corrosion in water,
as we before found in the case of cast iron; minute difference in chemical
constitution has very little effect on the rate of corrosion ; thus the difference
is slight between the index of corrosion of—a’ 1, Gloucestershire iron of fine
quality, tough, both hot and cold; a! 2, Staffordshire iron, red-short, contain-
ing sulphur and perhaps a trace of arsenic; and a! 3, cold-short Staffordshire
iron, containing phosphorus in large proportion; but it is very great between
these and @' 4, a common bar of inferior Shropshire iron. This iron, on ex-
amination of its fracture with a lens, showed the presence of innumerable
microscopic spots of silicate of oxide of iron and of magnetic oxide. These -
immediately, on exposure to air and water, become partially converted into
peroxide of iron, and being electro-negative to the iron itself, powerfully
promote its corrosion. Hence such “slaggy” iron, as it is technically called,
is to be avoided where durability is important.
311. To the general fact of uniformity of texture giving a small index of
corrosion, unfinished bars from the puddling furnace, before the second rolling,
are an exception. These bars contain a large amount of silex, and are ex-
tremely hard. They are of no constructive value, of course, but the experi-
ments with them (a 10, 11, &c.) show that, as in cast iron, so here hardness or
softness are elements in the rate of corrosion ; and this is further confirmed by
the results relating to steel, wherein the small amount of corrosion for hard-
ened cast steel is remarkable.
The highly siliceous irons, however, corrode very locally, and appear to be
partially defended from the reaction of air and water by a thin coat of silex
formed upon them. i
$12. Of all the wrought irons experimented on, that which was found most
durable under all possible conditions of exposure was faggoted serap iron
bar (a 14), that which had been most wrought, and which was not only most
10 REPORT—1843.
uniform in texture, but proved, on subsequent chemical examination, to be
most free from any foreign matter, consisting in fact of nothing besides iron,
except a mere trace of carbon and silex. My former presumption (64) in
favour of rolled bars is therefore partly erroneous.
Next to this in durability stands Low Moor Boiler Plate, an iron whose
purity and excellence is universally known. These results make it plain that
for iron ship-building the-two latter kinds of iron are greatly to be preferred,
and whether in clear or foul sea water, or in fresh or exposed to wet and dry,
are very superior to common Staffordshire plates for this purpose.
The iron of which the faggoted bar (a 14) was formed, was best Stafford-
shire rivet iron of excellent quality. Comparing the results of the corrosion
of the Dannemora Swedish iron with this, it is apparent that no superior
durability is imparted by the Swedish method of refining over that obtained
by our own puddling process, when properly conducted.
313. In Table XLV. the average results for all the wrought irons of most
practical importance are given in each condition of experiment ; those for the
remaining sorts may be easily calculated from the previous tables.
314. Foul water, z.e. that evolving sulphuretted hydrogen, and other gases
resulting from putrifying organic matter, acts, whether salt or fresh, much
more powerfully upon wrought iron than when free from such impurities.
The actual contact of soft putrid mud beneath salt water appears to be more
destructive than the water itself.
315. In the autumn of the year 1832, I observed that small gas bubbles
were constantly evolved from the mud at the bottom of some of the lagunes
at Venice, which on reaching the surface became instantly luminous, and
disappeared with, as far as could be judged, a real combustion.
The gas when collected, however, was not spontaneously combustible, and
I had no means of examining it with precision.
It seems probable, however, that when large quantities of animal matter
are in a state of decomposition, phosphorus in some of its combinations will
always be found; and when iron is exposed under such conditions, a phos-
phate of iron is produced. This has actually been observed in the case of a
large quantity of iron weapons discovered a year or two ago in a bog near ©
Dunshaughlin, county Meath, along with a mass of bones of oxen, horses and
other animals. The surface of most of the iron, which, after the lapse of
some centuries, during which it was enveloped in damp peat, was in singu-
larly good preservation, was almost uniformly covered with a bluish coat of
phosphate of iron, quite similar apparently to the native blue phosphate.
316. Proceeding now to the experiments made
On Steel,
the results of which are given in the same tables with the wrought iron, we
find that in general steel corrodes much more uniformly and a good deal more
slowly than wrought iron.
That hardened cast steel, after “tilting,” has the average minimum cor-
rosion, and that low shear steel, which is in fact a sort of steely iron, has the
maximum.
317. It was stated before (1st Rep.21) that plumbago occasionally had been
found from the action of air and water on wrought iron, as well as on cast
iron. The present results show that raw or untilted cast steel always produces
a brilliant shining plumbago like that from white cast iron, and in general
that the production of plumbago by aqueous corrosion is dependent (so far
as the metal is concerned), either in cast or wrought iron, upon the amount
of combined carbon, and upon the state of aggregation of the particles of the
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. il
metal. The crystallized state appears to be essential to its production in the
cases of wrought iron and steel. The pieces of raw cast steel experimented
on were found converted into plumbago for about jth of an inch in depth,
and on removing this, the surface of the metal was found covered with a
beautiful interlacing of crystals.
318. Several experiments have been made to endeavour to arrive at a more
perfect knowledge of the nature and formation of this peculiar substance, as
yet, I regret to say, without much success, owing to the circumstance that
the same substance cannot be produced at will, or in a moderate time by the
action of acids on iron, and that great difficulty has been found in obtaining
_ specimens both of the substance, and of the iron from which it resulted, in a
fit state for experiment, viz. not acted on by air. I have however been
favoured by Major-General Pasley, R.E., with some specimens from the Royal
George, sent to me in hermetically sealed vessels, which promise to give the
desired information as to what passes when this curious substance heats
spontaneously in air, and how it is formed.
Attempts have also been made to collect and examine the peculiar organic
bodies produced along with this by the action of acids, &c. on iron and steel.
These substances are of great chemical interest by adding to the small num-
ber of organic bodies known to be formed directly. They are of the families
of hydrocarbons and extractive matters, produced by the action of the evolved
hydrogen upon the nascent carbon of the iron. They are produced, how-
ever, in very minute quantity in relation to the volume of hydrogen, and
hence it has been necessary to operate on immense volumes of the gas evolved
from iron, &c. to collect these new bodies in sufficient quantity for examina-
tion; owing to this, to their entanglement with the sulphur, phosphorus, &c.
of the iron, and to the powerful affinity of some of them for oxygen, they
have as yet not been collected in mass sufficient for accurate examination.
Two hydrocarbons have however been distinguished, one solid at common
temperatures, and the other liquid and highly volatile, besides the bodies of
the extractive or apotheme class. _
With respect to the plumbago, I am led to believe that the amount of car-
bon in a given bulk is generally greater than that due to the same bulk of the
metal removed, and that in such cases the additional carbon has been depo-
sited by decomposition of the carbonic acid contained in the water. The
present, however, is not the place for incomplete researches, which those be-
longing to this branch of my subject are, and as to which I hope at some
future time to lay further results before the Association.
_ $19. The rusts removed from the several classes of specimens after the first
immersion have been submitted to chemical examination ; their compositions
do not differ from those given in the preceding Reports, and vary with the
time of formation. ;
_ Omitting the accidental substances introduced either from the iron or the
water, they are all hydrated oxides and carbonates of iron, and tend, in pro-
_ portion to the duration of reaction, nearer and nearer to approach the formula
2 Fe; O; + 3 HO, becoming in fact artificial brown hematite, more or less
: thixed with Fe O + C O,, or spathic iron ore. When very old these rusts
_ appear to lose constituent water and become “fer oligiste ;’ they are imper-
feetly crystallized; such I found to be the case with some taken from a bar
on one of the towers of York Minster. They always give traces of ammonia.
When formed in foul sea water, they generally include microscopic crystals
of iron pyrites, and always in small quantity basic salts (sulphates and chlo-
rides), with earthy carbonates formed by decomposition of the saline con-
tents of sea water.
12 REPORT—1843.
$20. Since the publication of my last Report, a fact long doubted has been
ascertained by myself and by others, namely, that water, when in the state of
steam and under considerable pressure, is slowly decomposed by a surface of
iron at temperatures far below visible ignition, even as low as about the
melting point of lead, producing (as in the well-known case at the tempera-
ture of ignition) the magnetic oxide of iron. This has been proved not only in
Perkins’s closed tubes for heating buildings by hot water, or rather steam, but
in a high pressure steam-boiler working at 65lbs. per square inch by myself.
This decomposition appears always to go on in steam-boilers where the
inner coating of deposit or sediment causes a plate to overheat, as in such
cases oxide of iron is found lining the interior of the boiler; at that spot the
deposited salts are probably decomposed here also in part.
321. No mode of coating with zinc appears capable of preserving iron from
the action of boiling salt water; on the contrary, the zinc oxidates with un-
usual rapidity and the iron is not preserved.
322. There is a great difficulty in making any experiments of practical
-value or accuracy upon the questions proposed (2nd Rep. 166, &e.)’as to the
temperature of the boiling sea water in marine iron steam-boilers, or what is
the same thing, the degree of saline concentration at which the maximum
corrosion takes place. From various circumstances attending the working
of marine boilers, the waste of fuel appears to increase rapidly with the con-
centration of the water beyond a certain point.
A. B. Cc; D.
Chloride of sodium ..... 2°50 | 16°00 | 25°50 | 20°80
Chloride of magnesium .. . 0°35 0°46 1:07 4°85
Sulphate of magnesia .... 058 | O80} 148] 9:50
Carbon, lime and magnesia . 0°02 0:00 0:00 0:00
Sulphate of lime. ...... 001 0°30 0°00 0°00
Water. ..... cee eee se | 96°54 | 79°79 | 6914 | 64°85
Sulphate of soda....... 0:00 2°65 2°81 0:00
——$————— a
100°00 | 100°00 |} 100-00 | 100°00
The composition of sea water being on the average represented by the
column A, specific gravity = 1:0278. When the water in the boiler has
been concentrated to the specific gravity 1°140, its composition is shown in
column B ; and when it has arrived at the density 1°220, it has the compo-
sition in column C ; finally, when the greatest part of the common salt has
deposited, the supernatant fluid has the composition in column D. Such are
the accurate Berthier’s results.
I believe the greatest amount of corrosion goes on in iron boilers (irrespect-
ive of injury done by deposits) after sea salt has begun to deposit freely,
when the boiling temperature is about 232° Fahr., combined air not being
present in the water, and hence, as far as corrosion is concerned, the object
of the engineer is to work at as low a point of concentration as possible, which
comports well with all the other contingencies of the case. It would be de-
sirable that the feed-water of marine boilers were heated to above 190° Fahr.
before entering them, and means provided for the escape of the air disen-
gaged, which now enters the boilers and aids much in corrosion. This could
easily be done by Maudsley and Field’s beautiful arrangement of their feed
and brine pumps. On this branch of the subject, however, I hope hereafter
to present further and more complete results.
—
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 13
323. In Table XI. is given the results of corrosion of wrought iron in vol- -
taic contact with the alloys of copper and zine, and in Table XII. those with
copper and tin. The alloys are the same as those whose reactions are given in
Tables 1X. and X. of second Report, with which the present tables coordinate.
Corrosion of wrought iron is accelerated by the presence of either brass
or gun-metal ; most so by the latter. With equal surfaces and conditions,
copper produces greater corrosion than any of its alloys with zinc. Most of
those which constitute the metals used in commerce, however, do not greatly
accelerate the corrosion of wrought iron.
_ All alloys of copper and tin do accelerate it considerably, and even more
than copper itself, while tin produces a still greater effect than copper; thus
in most respects wrought iron is acted upon by air and sea water in presence
of these alloys in a similar way to cast iron.
These tables now give numerical measures of the amount of loss of metal
that will occur in practice in the given conditions. The results obtained long
since by Sir H. Davy, as to the small amount of positive metal requisite to
protect copper sheathing, indicate that within very wide limits in the relative
proportions of the iron, to either the brass or the gun-metal, these results will
be very nearly exact. In the present case the surface of wrought iron was
always = 3:07 square inches, and of the brass or gun-metal = 1:99 square
inch, and the experiments were made in vessels containing a proportionally
large volume of sea water, and frequently renewed.
_ $24. In Table XIII. the average loss by corrosion is given of all the varie-
_ ties of cast iron at the second period of exposure of 732 days, and of the
wrought iron and steel exposed for the same period, but for the first time,
_ and also of both cast and wrought iron exposed to the weather; and in ge-
_neral the average results of the whole investigation, reduced into form for
_ practical use, will be found in this and the two following tables. Table XIV.
gives at one comparative view the results of all the classes of experiment.
$25. In Table XV., which coordinates with Table VIII. of second Report,
_ the average results for wrought iron and steel are extended to a period of a
century for clear sea and fresh water, and for exposure to weather, &c. The
numbers here give absolute measures of the loss of metal taking place in the
several conditions, and from the extended base of induction from which they
have been obtained, may, I think, be relied on in practice.
_ 326. In each of the classes of experiment will be found included some
made for the same lengthened period of 732 days, or about two years, on
iron zinked in the ordinary way or “ galvanized,” and on iron coated with the
zine paint before spoken of (2nd Rep. 195). These results quite confirm the
Statements made in my second Report respecting these modes of protection ;
_ in every case zinking is but a partial preservative to iron in any sort of water.
Referring to Table XIII. it will be seen, that in clear sea water the corro-
sion of such zinked iron is rather more than one-half of unprotected iron in
like conditions, while in foul water, whether fresh or salt, it is fully as great.
Tn fact, in foul water the zinc becomes wholly converted into a black, brittle,
crystalline crust, which is found to be sulphuret of zinc united to sulphuret of
iron, in fact to be an artificial blende, having the composition (Zn + Fe) + S.
poo. Zinked iron exposed merely to the weather, however, seems to be
more permanently protected ; and it does appear that a coat of zinc, although
thin, if its integrity be not injured mechanically, will protect iron from rust
when exposed to the ordinary atmospheric influences.
_ 328. Zine paint appears to be, as predicted, an extremely durable covering,
‘More so than any one tried, except the asphaltic varnishes or coal-tar laid on
hot ; it is desirable its use should become better known, and be extended to all
14 REPORT—1843.
large engineering structures, iron bridges, viaducts, &c., in place of the perish-
able “best white lead” paint usually prescribed by the engineer’s specification.
329. Since the publication of the previous Reports much attention has
been excited by the new method of zinking patented by Messrs. Elkington
and M. Ruolz, as connected with their gilding processes, for which they have
since received the prize of the French Acadenty. For a complete account
of their highly important improvements, not merely in gilding or silvering,
but generally in the means of covering any one metal almost with any other,
reference must be had to the elaborate report presented to the Institute on
this subject by M. Dumas. These methods consist partly in the use of cer-
tain complex metallic solutions varying with the metals engaged, principally
double chlorides and cyanurets, and partly in using these in connexion with
the voltaic battery. By these beautiful and economical processes, gold, silver,
platina, copper; tin, cobalt, nickel and zinc may be precipitated upon the sur-
face of various metals, and amongst them upon cast iron, wrought iron or
steel at common temperatures. '
The coating formed is very thin and perfectly incapable of giving any
permanent protection to iron immersed in water or exposed to abrasion, but
I have no doubt of its capability of preserving completely iron in any of its
states, in moderately dry air, and to a great extent also when exposed freely
to the weather. The method possesses the important advantages of being
applicable to very minute or highly wrought articles in iron, to which zine
could not be applied in a liquid form by heat without destroying their beauty,
or rendering them brittle by alloying with the iron all through, and also to
articles so large and unwieldy that no operation involving a high temperature
or change of place could conveniently be performed on them. Thus statues
cast in iron may, by Elkington and Ruolz’s processes, be covered with zine
standing on their pedestals, and the coating even periodically renewed, there
being no difficulty in forming around them a stanch vessel to contain the
required solution. For every work in iron applied to architectural construc-
tion, and only exposed to atmospheric moisture and not liable to abrasion,
this method is most suitable} as for cast-iron balustrades or cornices, inter-
nal cramps and ties in walls, wire for ropes or for suspension-bridges, light-
ning conductors, iron wire-gauze, &c. But I am corivinced, from the results
given in this and the preceding Report, that no mere covering of zine alone,
however laid on, will be completely effective in water, and hence many of the
applications, to cannon shot for instance, proposed by the report of M. Dumas,
are such as the invention of Elkington and Ruolz will not answer. It is
scarcely necessary to repeat, that none of the other known metals, except
zine, capable of being applied by these methods, are admissible where the
coated surface is liable to abrasion. Zinc and certain of its alloys protect,
on two grounds, as a sheathing, liable to be more or less destroyed, and vol-
taically in proportion to the electric energy deyeloped, and whether the in-
tegrity of the covering metal be broken or not; but metals electro-negative
to iron stand in a different predicament.
Of Iron Ships.
330. The durability of iron ships has become one of the most important
questions involved in the present inquiry, from the rapid extension which
this novel branch of naval architecture has received, and is still receiving.
Amongst other considerations as to their fitness for distant voyages and their
economic adoption, is that of their durability in respect to corrosion as com-
pared with timber-built vessels, their relative liability to “ fouling,” and what
are the means we possess of preventing or retarding both. If the former,
As a ae
SL. Oe a srt
res
ee ee
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 15
viz. the durability, be ensured, the vessels remaining clean under water is
nearly, if not wholly attained, for both marine animals and plants adhere
with obstinacy to the oxidized iron of a rusty ship’s bottom, on which they
thrive and multiply, while to clean iron they will scarcely attach themselves.
From the importance of this subject I have been induced to give it a very
particular consideration, and propose here to enter somewhat fully into the
principal agents of corrosion of iron ships, the directions in which these are
found, or may be expected, to act most destructively; to describe the pecu-
liar methods which I have been led to devise for preventing corrosion, and
also those for preventing the “fouling,” which is admitted by the most san-
~ guine advocates of iron ship-building to be at present the salient evil of the
system. This matter has acquired increased importance from the recent
discovery of Professor Daniell of the existence of sulphuretted hydrogen in
the sea water of the tropics, which our previous experiments show acts most
destructively on iron, as well as on the copper sheathing of timber vessels,
331. The lower part of an iron ship’s floor is exposed to putrid bilge-water
(if permitted to accumulate); this, on grounds already stated, is an agent of
great corrosive power, and when heated, as beneath the boilers in steam-
yessels, its effects are greatly increased, as far as action from the inside is
concerned ; therefore the floor and futtocks may be expected soonest to re-
quire restoration. This I am informed is actually the case in those thin sheet-
iron “fly-boats” used for passengers in Scotland and Ireland on the canals,
A remedy for this suggests itself which it would be highly desirable to make
trial of, which could be of no inconvenience, and if snecessful, would have
the additional advantage of destroying all smell of bilge-water in a vessel and
of preserving her floor at all times sweet.
It has been before remarked (1st Rep. 49, &c.) that a small quantity of an
alkali in solution, even in salt water, is capable of arresting oxidation of iron ;
it is highly probable that an alkaline earth-lime for instance in solution pos-
sesses the same power, indeed Payen’s experiments make this certain; there
would be no difficulty to keeping lime-water in the place of bilge-water over
the floor of an iron ship, to any desirable degree of saturation. The ship’s
well being periodically pumped out dry, fresh water let in, and a few lumps of
dry lime dispersed, a fresh supply of lime-water would be kept up, which would
not only preserve the bottom, but destroy the putridity of the bilge-water, of
which some will be found eyen in the stanchest vessel. No injury would be
likely to result to the few timbers which would be exposed to its contact.
$32. Exteriorly the action of air and water will be greatest just between
wind and water, and abreast of the paddle-wheels in steamers, where the
constant splash from the paddles strikes, and wherever the shell of the vessel
is heated by the contact or proximity of the boilers, &e., but the difference
in other parts of the hull is not likely to be considerable unless in very fast-
going vessels.
_ 333. It has long been an opinion amongst those concerned in iron ship-
building, that “an iron vessel when kept in constant use is not only free from
oxidation, but presents no more appearance of corrosion than railway-bars,
which (say the advocates of this doctrine) are well known to remain uncor-
Toded so long as the carriages continue to roll over them.” “If the iron ship
be kept in constant use, ¢.e. in constant motion through the water, there is
no appearance of deterioration ; but lay her up for a few months, and the
usual appearances of atmospheric action become visible, accompanied by a
rapid corrosion of the points exposed.” With respect to this singular opinion
as to railway bars, we shall have more to say presently; what analogy sub-
sists however between a railway bar and an iron ship it is hard to see, I do
16 REPORT—1843.
not doubt the fact that an iron ship kept constantly in motion through the
water will present much less signs of corrosion than she will do if laid up for
an equal time, but the fact does not warrant the conclusion; on the contrary,
this fact rightly interpreted is the surest possible proof, and that too from the
testimony of those most advantageously circumstanced for judging, that rapid
corrosion does take place.
It has been heretofore shown, that when iron oxidates in sea water, the rust,
when first formed, is soft and pulverulent; it has also been shown that every
metal, iron included, is electro-positive to its own oxides ; in other words, that
the peroxide of iron formed acts as an acid towards the iron upon which it lies,
in the same way exalting the rate of corrosion as the plumbago formed on
cast iron has been shown by the present set of experiments to do upon it.
Now it is admitted that an iron ship at rest does corrode: if so, peroxide
of iron is formed if the ship continue long at rest. This coat of oxide gets
harder and forms a scale of oxide, which yet more promotes the rate of cor-
rosion ; but if the ship be kept in motion, the oxide formed, soft and pulve-
ruient at first, is swept off by the passage of her sides through the water
nearly as fast as it is formed, and hence, while corrosion is still going on, the
exposed surface of iron, when examined, presents a clean and apparently
uncorroded appearance.
Thus it is not true that an iron ship constantly in motion is incorrodible
by sea water; on the contrary, corrosion does go on, and just at whatever
rate the conditions of exposure warrant, in a surface of iron whose oxide is
removed nearly as fast as it is formed, that is to say, which is exposed only
to the corroding effects of the salt or other water, &c., and not to this to-
gether with the effect of its own peroxide ; but it also follows, from the expla-
nation above given of the phzenomena, that the real rate of corrosion of an iron
ship is less, and probably a good deal less, while she is kept in motion than
while she may be at rest ; and for the same reasons her tendency to “foul”
is less while in motion than at rest.
334. By others it has been fancied that magnetism in some occult way
interfered with corrosion in iron ships. There is no doubt that every iron
ship becomes a magnet by induction from the earth, but the intensity will
depend upon the ship’s bearing, at any moment, as well as upon other obvious
conditions. Admitting however that an iron ship were at all times a perma-
nent magnet, no known fact warrants the supposition that its rate of corrosion
would be in the slightest degree altered thereby (1st Rep. 66).
The experiments cited by Levol, and alluded to in 1st Rep. 67, as appa-
rently leading to a different conclusion, I have since found do not sustain the
view of that author. The deficiency in rate of precipitation, &c. observed
by him, arose from mechanical impediments introduced by the evolution of
gas bubbles, and affected by the different position of his wires in the solution,
and had nothing to do with their magnetism.
335. I therefore look upon it as perfectly certain that iron vessels corrode
just as any other mass of iron in similar conditions will. I would add, that
no mere inspection of surface is sufficient to determine in this case whether
oxidation has taken place or to what extent, nor can any sufficiently precise
determination of amount of corrosion be obtained by drilling holes through
the plates and measuring their thickness. ‘This method might give some
answer after a quarter of a century’s corrosion; but for any moderate period
no correct data as to the loss of metal can be had, but by a plate of large
size and known weight, attached to the ship’s hull by rivets or screw-bolts,
detached after exposure and again weighed ; and this experiment has not to
my knowledge ever yet been made.
eee
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 17
_ 836. As the bulls of iron ships cannot, be ordinarily got at to keep them
» uniformly covered with any common paint or varnish (which have however
“alone but a limited palliative effect in preventing corrosion), such vessels
‘should in all respects be viewed with reference to corrosion, as if the iron
was always quite bare; and if so, Table XV., before given, affords data for
determining their duration if wholly unprotected, but as we shall see hereafter,
iron vessels may be so treated, that in regard to corrosion it is difficult to
assign a limit to their durability, which it is generally admitted depends
simply on the question of corrosion.
$37. The plates of an iron ship are likely in general to be corroded most
round the rivet-heads, both outside and inside, and adjacent to any spots
where the plates have been hardened by hammering or bending, or in any
other way have had their homogeneity destroyed, and least round the bows, &c.,
where the oxide formed is swept off by the ship’s motion through the water.
338. The contact of oak timber especially, and generally of all timbers
which contain tannic or gallie acids, is extremely injurious to iron, and for
keelsons, &c.. or other timbers in contact with iron and water, teak should
always be used in preference, which does not act at all, or but very slightly,
upon iron. The bolts and nails of a gate of the fort at Canara, East Indies,
after having been exposed to the weather for half a century, were found as
sound as when put in: the gate was of teak. In the “Chiffone” frigate
certain teak planks had been bolted to her sides; on subsequent removal the
iron was sound and uncorroded in the teak, but eaten through in the oak.
339. This injurious effect of oak timber as applied to iron ship-building,
might however probably be completely obviated by steeping the timber,
prior to insertion, in a solution of sulphate of iron, which would engage the
whole of the organic acids which act so injuriously upon iron. ‘The oak
would become black from the gallate and tannate of iron formed in its pores;
its durability would most probably be increased fully as much as by steeping
in sulphate’ of copper, for which, as a mode of preventing dry-rot, a patent
has been obtained, and there is no reason to suppose that the timber would
suffer any deterioration in toughness, while it would certainly become harder.
340. Kyanized timber of all sorts is destructive to iron in sea water to a
prodigious extent; a portion of the corrosive sublimate (whether more or
less changed) contained in the pores of the wood, is decomposed by the con-
tact of the iron, and the quicksilver reduced to the metallic state, which, by
its powerful electro-negative relation to iron, promotes the corrosion of the
latter. The actual amount of corrosion on best Staffordshire iron, by my
experiments, when in sea water and in contact with kyanized oak, amounted
_ in two years to a depth of 0-122 of an inch of iron removed all over the
surface, while the same iron freely exposed to the sea water alone, lost not
half so much in the same time. Indeed the utility of kyanizing timber which -
is to be immersed in sea water appears very dubious, even if it were in this
respect harmless ; for M. Lassaigne has shown that whatever be the nature of
the combination which the corrosive sublimate forms with the albumen of the
wood, it is soon washed out, being soluble in salt water; and I have already
stated that, in timber freely exposed in sea water, kyanizing is no protection
ainst marine boring animals, kyanized oak being eaten through, two inches
hick, in about two years, by the Limnoria terebrans, in Kingstown Harbour.
_ 341. Of course the contact of a metal electro-negative to iron, as lead or
copper, with iron ships, either exteriorly or interiorly, should be avoided, and
when itis inevitable, increased scantling should be given to the plates, &c. at
and around the spot. |
og contact also of brass should as much as possible be avoided ; but the
, c
18 REPORT—1843.
injurious effects of brass depend much upon the relative proportions of its
constituent metals, and by a proper choice in this respect may be made very
small. (See Tables, 2nd Rep. IX. and X., and 3rd Rep, XI. and XII.) Brass
or the alloys of copper and zinc, are to be preferred to gun-metal or those of
copper and tin, all of which greatly promote the corrosion of iron when in
contact with them in a menstruum.
342. It is a good palliative when copper or brass must be in contact with
the iron, as in the flanges of sea-cocks, &c. in steam-vessels, to interpose a
thickness of patent felt, saturated in boiled coal-tar or in wax, or other non- »
conducting substance ; no interposition of “short iron pipes” or other metallic
matters, unless masses of zine, will be of any use; and the effect of local
corrosion thus produced, especially about the engine-room and boilers in
iron steamers, demands the most scrupulous caution, much more than ap-
pears yet to have been given it, gun-metal sea-cocks, copper blow-off pipes,
&e. being at present in general attached directly to the iron hull, which are
certain soon to cause the iron plate round them to be eaten away, and thus
the vessel is rendered leaky in a vital point and probably at an unexpected
moment. The application of a thick zine flange outside the ship’s side or
bottom, at the junction of such a cock or pipe, would be a remedy, but would
promote fouling; increased local scantling, and non-conducting flanges be-~
tween the electro-negative metal and the iron, are most to be commended.
343. There are several substances found in commerce, the contact of which
with the iron of ships, when carried as loose cargo, is more or less injurious,
and unless an effective method of protection be adopted, such articles should
not be taken in iron vessels but at commensurate freights ; some of these may
be named, as pyritose wet coal, sulphur, sulphur stone, gypsum, galena,
copper ore, or other metallic sulphurets, when wet; alum, salt, bleaching
salts; acids of all sorts, when not rendered secure against escape; wet bark
for tanning, or other matters containing gallic or tannic acids, &c.
344. The following extract from our Tables gives the relative values of
several of the principal sorts of wrought iron and steel found in commerce,
in respect to durability in clear sea water; their relative rates of corrosion are
directly as the numbers attached to each, and hence the values of the several
sorts of iron, &c. for ship-building are inversely ly as those numbers.
Make of Iron. Inverse Relative Value.
Common Shropshire bar. . . . - . + . « . 36°14
Tilted castiron . . ESTE AD CS MRT LO OME ASE RSS
Cold short bar, Staffordshire SMA 2 Bt Da eS TRA A
BHeRP RESET, Bit PARTI I Cie Gohan eat a Ole
Best bar iron, Bradley. . . .. . Ras Fea
Spring steel, tempered . . . 2. 2. 2 1 2... « T1861
Blister steel, soft. . . J opdag Oly Si ee
Best bars and plates, Doulais (hot blast) 2) AA fe Te eee
Swedish iron, Dannemora . . Pl RA ae a so
Red short bar, Staffordshire . . . . . . . . . 10°78
Common plates, Banks. . 2... 2. . 1 ss. 10°60
Common Shropshire bar, case hardened ... . . . 10°14
Best plates and bars, Forest of Dean . . . . . . 10:08
Cast steel, as hard as possible. PJ! ORT See
Best bars and plates, Doulais ta blast) oe) Yee SO ea
Low Moor plates. . . . ae LU, PL
Best faggoted scrapiron . . . . . . « . ss) D252
From the foregoing table it is obvious that. plates rolled from scrapped iron
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 19
would be the most durable for ship-building ; the Low Moor comes next to
these ; and to these again, the plates from South Wales.
345. I now proceed to make some observations upon one or two of the
methods of protection for iron which have been recently published, before
giving the details of that which I have proposed.
The whole of the various methods that have been from time to time pro-
posed for protecting iron from corrosion, may be divided into two classes :
those which protect the iron by a mechanical covering, more or less perfect,
and itself not acted on by the corroding agent; and those wherein, by the
contact of some other body, a change is produced in the electric or chemico-
polar condition of the iron with respect to the corroding agents, such that
they cease to be so with reference to 7.
To the first class belongs the whole tribe of paints and varnishes, and
every attempt to cover or sheathe the surface of the iron with another metal
which is electro-negative to it. The principal methods of this class which
have been recently patented, are those of Miles Berry (a communication),
for coating iron with alloys of zinc and copper by cementation (May 1838,
Newton’s Journal, conj. series, vol. xv. p. 91); Neilson’s (of Glasgow), for
coating iron with brass, by dusting the interior of the mould with brass filings
before the metal is poured in, &c., a process absolutely useless; and Joseph
Shore’s, sealed March 1840 (Rep. Arts, No. 84, December 1840), for precipi-
tating copper or nickel on iron by Spencer's electrotype process ; and Elking-
ton and Ruolz’s process, already spoken of, patented in December 1840, which
includes both classes of protection.
To this class also Wall's (of Bermondsey) process; so much brought before
the public, may be said to belong, inasmuch as (although, with reference to
zine or copper, this process may produce a change in the chemical relations
of those metals to air and water) it has no such effect upon iron, and merely
acts upon it as an imperfect but most expensive paint or varnish.
$46. The principle of the second class has been already fully pointed out
in preceding Reports, and its conditions experimented on and stated. It has
been stated that Sir H. Davy, Edmund Davy, Pepys and Sorel, long since
invented or applied this sort of protection to iron.
The principal inventions dependent upon this method which have been
patented, are those by H. W. Crauford (sealed April 1837, Rep. Arts, N. 8.
vol. ix. p. 289), and Fountainmoreau’s (sealed May 1838, Newton’s Journal,
conj. series, vol. xvi. p. 289). These two patents are in fact one; they are
essentially the same, differing only in certain details of application, &c. They
both consist in the application of a thin coating of zinc to the whole surface
of the iron, by dipping the iron into fluid zinc, when properly cleaned before-
hand, or by coating it with a paint, or rubbing it, or lapping it up in a powder
of metallic zinc.
Of these various methods not one is completely effective, the causes of
_ which have been already fully discussed throughout these Reports.
347. The paint made of powdered zinc, and Wall’s mercurial paint have
no efficacy of an electro-chemical kind whatever towards iron, They differ
_ in no respect from any other paint in being towards # mere mechanical
coverings, more or less perfect. The results of experiments on the zine paint
have been already given. Wall's patent, which describes an absurd and
roundabout process that reminds one of the recipes of the alchymists, and
can scarcely be the result of chemical knowledge, is, when stripped of its
useless encumbrances, simply a mode of making a mixture of several salts of
iron and mercury, chiefly sesquichloride and sesquioxide of iron, and sub-
~ chloride and subnitrate of mercury, with probably suboxide of mercury, which
cQ2
20 REPORT—1843.
being obtained, the whole is ground into a thin “ bodyless” paint with lin-
seed oil; when the paint is long exposed to sea water in contact with zinc
or copper, it is possible that a small quantity of the mercury may be reduced
to the metallic state, and may amalgamate the surface of a zinc or copper
plate in contact with it; but it cannot, under any conceivable circumstances,
have the smallest protective power over iron, beyond that which the linseed
oil alone gives, the greasy coating of which probably enabled the patentee’s
prepared plates to resist the acids, &c. applied by those whose testimonials to
that effect have been published. In some specimens of zine and iron which I
received prepared according to this process, I found there was not the slightest
protection from corrosion when once the greasy film of oil was removed.
348. I now pass to the second class of methods of protection. Zine is
the only known metal that can be practically used as an electro-chemical pro-
tector to iron; it can be applied, in a massive form, locally or at particular
centres of action, or it can be diffused in a thin coat or zinking over the
whole surface.
There is no considerable difficulty in the first mode of application in most
cases, but it is, after the lapse of a greater or less time (generally only a few
weeks), nearly useless, from one or both of two causes. Zinc is so slightly
electro-positive to iron, that its protective power is nearly destroyed when-
ever a few spots of red rust have formed anywhere upon the iron it is in
contact with ; the peroxide acting as an acid towards its own base in both fresh
and sea water, the surface of the zinc gets covered in the latter with a hard
crystalline coat of hydrated oxide of zine and of cale-spar, which retards or
prevents its further corrosion, and thus permits the iron to corrode. The de-
tails of these reactions have been given at length in preceding Reports.
349. These phenomena also occur when the surface of the iron is all
zinked over; but the insurmountable objection to zinked iron is, that in
about two years nearly the whole of the thin coat of zinc is oxidized and re-
moved even in fresh water, and in less time in sea water; further, the ten-
dency of zinc to oxidate when fluid and at a high temperature, say 700°
Fahr., is so great, and the methods of cleaning the surfaces of iron to be zinked
heretofore practised so imperfect, that the surface of iron is never perfectly
covered; and wherever an uncovered spot occurs and is exposed to air and
water, after a time red oxide is formed, with the results above stated. Zine,
alone or unalloyed, at its fusing temperature in process of working gets its
oxide mixed up with the metal, which adheres in minute patches to the iron,
every one of which becomes a centre of subsequent oxidation.
$50. I will not attempt here to enter upon the theoretical consideration of
the process about to be described, but confine myself to a description of the
methods to be pursued and the results obtained. These methods of prevent-
ing the corrosion of iron, whether cast or wrought, or of steel, are applicable
to articles formed of these metals of whatever sort; and the methods of pre-
venting the “ fouling” of iron vessels, or vessels sheathed with iron, are ap-
plicable to all articles of these metals immersed in sea or fresh water; I
therefore propose their application to all manner of articles of cast iron,
wrought iron, or steel ; but as by far their most important and valuable appli-
cation is to the protection of ships built of iron, I will confine my description
to the methods of applying my processes to such only, from which may be
readily understood how it is to be applied to all other articles of iron, &e.
351. By the word “ fouling,” as applied to ships, iron buoys, floating bea-
cons, &c., is meant the attachment and adherence to their surfaces, when im-
mersed in sea or certain fresh waters, of various marine or freshwater animals
of the molluscous and testaceous classes, and of aquatic plants.
a
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. oh
$52. The method of preventing corrosion and “fouling” of iron vessels
consists of three principal operations ; the first of which is designed to pre-
vent corrosion, the second aids the former, and also prevents the first part of
the process being afterwards interfered with by the third operation, which has
reference solely to the prevention of “ fouling.” Hence, for all other articles
of iron, except certain of those immersed in sea or fresh water, the first two
operations are alone requisite, and in some cases the first only. I proceed
to describe in detail the modes of performing the several operations.
353. The first consists in covering the iron with a particular alloy of zine
in fusion; for this purpose the iron surfaces require to be previously cleansed
from adhering oxide. The boiler-plates, angle-iron, &c. to be used for ship-
building should not be permitted to acquire any red rust previous to the
operations about to be described; and if required to lay by for a considerable
time previous to use, or to be transported to a distance, should be rubbed over
with drying oil or other greasy matter to preserve them temporarily from rust :
this oily coating may be afterwards removed by immersion in any alkaline ley.
354. The plates or other pieces of cast or wrought iron or steel are to be
immersed on edge (or in such a position that the detached scale of oxide can
readily fall off), in a suitable vessel of wood, pottery, stone or lead, contain-
ing dilute sulphuric acid (specific gravity about 1°30), or dilute hydrochloric
acid, specific gravity about 1°06 at 60°, formed by diluting these acids re-
spectively, as they are usually found in commerce, with rather more than an
equal bulk of water.
The diluted acid is best warmed, which may be conveniently done by a
steam-jacket round the vessel, or by blowing steam into the acid, as it is de-
sirable that the scale of oxide should be detached as rapidly as possible from
the surface of the iron. The acid vessel, in operating on the great scale, is
best formed so that the lower portion of acid and the scales which have de-
posited can be occasionally withdrawn, to prevent waste of acid or increased
length of time in the cleansing process. The iron must be wholly immersed,
and the bubbles of gas formed on its surface must be free to ascend in the
fluid and escape.
$55. As soon as the scale of oxide has become detached or loosened from
the iron, the plates or other pieces are to be removed from the “ cleansing
bath” and washed with cold water. The surfaces are now to be thoroughly
scoured by hand or by power, with sand or emery, or with pieces of grit
stone, while exposed to a small running stream of water, until they appear
quite clean, bright and metallic.
_ 356. The plates or other articles of iron are now immediately, and without
being permitted to dry, immersed in the “ preparing bath,” in which they are
to lie until about to be covered with the alloy of zine to‘be hereafter de-
seribed. The fluid which forms what may be called the “‘ preparing bath” is
‘ made in the following way:—To a saturated cold solution of chloride of zine
is to be added an equal bulk of a saturated cold solution of sal-ammoniac, and
to the mixed solutions as much more sal-ammoniac in the solid state is to be
_ added as they will dissolve; or these solutions may be made and mixed hot,
_ and the solid sal-ammoniac then added, if thought more desirable, but the
addition of more water on cooling is then requisite. The “ preparing bath”
may also be formed of sulphate of zinc and sulphate of ammonia, or acetate
of zine and acetate of ammonia, or of any other soluble double salt of zinc
and ammonia, or salt of manganese and ammonia; the nitrates of zinc and
ammonia are the least advantageous, but none answer the purpose so well as
the above-described chloride of zine and sal-ammoniac. No free acid should
be present in these solutions.
92 REPORT—1843.
357. The iron, cleansed by the previous operations, is immersed in this
solution, contained in vessels of wood or pottery, or stone, at common tem-
peratures ; as soon as the surfaces of the cleansed iron appear covered all over
with minute bubbles of gas, it is in a fit state to be submitted to the final
operation of immersing in the metallic alloy with which it is to be coated ;
but the iron, when once cleansed, may be permitted to remain in the “ pre-
paring bath” for any moderate length of time, without injury to the subse-
quent process. The “preparing bath” becomes therefore a convenient re-
ceptacle for depositing and preserving the cleaned or polished iron in until
ready for coating with the alloy.
358. The next part of the process consists in covering the iron with the
preservative alloy, which is to be prepared in the following manner :—Zine
is to be melted in a suitable vessel, which is best of pottery or stone; and
when in fusion mercury is to be added to it, in the proportion of 202 parts
of mercury to 1292 parts of zinc, both by weight; that is, 40 atoms of zinc
to 1 of mercury, or thereabouts. These are to be well stirred or mixed to-
gether with a rod of dry wood, or of iron coated with clay. To the above
alloy is now to be added either potassium or sodium, in the proportion of one
pound to every ton weight; the alloy of either will answer the purpose,
but I prefer sodium, as more easily obtained and more manageable. These
metals are usually preserved from oxidation in naphtha, or some other fluid
not containing oxygen. They are to be removed from this in small portions,
not more than half an ounce at a time, placed in a small inverted cup of
wood formed on the end of a stick and thrust rapidly below the surface of
the alloy of zine and mercury, with which either may be made thus to com-
bine easily, and without loss or combustion of the alkaline metal. The triple
alloy thus formed of zinc, mercury and sodium, or potassium, after having
been again stirred and mixed with the dry wood rod, is ready for coating the
prepared iron when immersed in it. The combination of these metals is faci-
litated, and their oxidation on the surface retarded, by strewing upon it some of
the salts contained in solution in the “ preparing bath” when in a dry state.
359. The plates of iron or other articles are now to be taken up out of the
“ preparing bath,” permitted to drain for a few seconds, and immediately,
while still wet with the liquor, immersed in the fused alloy ; and as soon as
they have acquired its temperature, which should not be raised higher than is
necessary for fusion, they are to be withdrawn again edgewise, and will be found
covered with a perfectly uniform and coherent coat or surface of the alloy.
360. The affinity of this alloy for iron is so intense, and the peculiar cir-
cumstances of surface induced by the preparing bath upon the iron presented
to it are such, that care is requisite, lest, by too long an immersion, the plates
or articles of iron should be partially dissolved ; and where the articles to be
covered are small, or their parts minute, it is necessary, before immersing
them, to permit the alloy to dissolve or combine with some wrought iron, in
order that its affinity for iron may be partially satisfied, and so this risk be
avoided. The alloy will, at its proper fusing temperature, which is about
680° Fahr., dissolve a plate of wrought iron of an eighth of an inch thick in
a few seconds, and form with it a quadruple alloy.
More or less mercury and more or less of the alkaline metals may be used
in forming this alloy, but the proportions given are those I have found best,
as the alloy is permanent at its temperature of fusion; 7.e. no mercury is
lost by volatilization, nor does the alloy show any inconvenient tendency to
oxidation, much less indeed than common zinc does at the surface, which is
in the case of the alloy to remain covered with any oxide produced, and with
the dry salt, the double chloride of the preparing bath transferred to it on
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 23
the pieces of iron, as these defend it from the action of the atmosphere. It
is desirable that the melting vessels should be as deep, and expose as small a
surface, as the nature of the articles to be immersed will allow. At the mo-
ment of immersion of a plate or other article of iron, the surface of the alloy
is to be cleared of all dross or oxide by a wooden skimmer.
361. As soon as the iron is withdrawn from the alloy it is to be plunged
into cold water and well washed therein. The surface of the iron is now in
a condition to resist corrosion.
362. By the addition of a larger portion of mercury to the before-mentioned
alloy of zine, mercury and sodium, or potassium, cast or wrought iron or steel
may be coated therewith at a lower temperature, or even cold, by simple con-
tact accompanied with friction; but a smaller quantity of mercury than that
before given will often be found most convenient.
363. In the case of iron ships the foregoing operations are best performed
upon the plates and ribs, after they have been all bent and fitted to their
places, and the plates riveted together into large pieces of eight to ten feet
square or more, which, when again put “ into frame,”/or placed in their re-
spective positions in the ship’s hull, are to be united by rivets countersunk
from the outside, and hence closed inside the vessel. The countersunk heads
of these rivets should be also coated with the alloy; and I have mentioned in
detail elsewhere how these may be heated for riveting without injuring the
alloyed head.
364. The hull of the iron vessel being thus completed and wholly covered
with the alloy, is now to receive a coat of varnish all over of the composition
about to be described, and which is best laid on with a spatula, or thin
flexible blade of iron, as a brush produces minute air-bubbles, which leave
spaces uncovered on the drying of the varnish.
The varnishes described will dry or get hard and coherent at ordinary
temperatures, but where convenient it is desirable to expose them for some
hours to a temperature of about 300° Fahr., which gives them greater ad-
hesion and durability.
~ 365. To form the varnish No. 1, take 50lbs. of foreign asphaltum, melt
and boil it in an iron vessel for three or four hours, adding gradually, in fine
powder, 16lbs. of red lead and litharge ground together in equal proportions,
with ten imperial gallons of drying linseed oil; bring all to a boiling tempe-
rature, melt in a separate vessel 8lbs. of gum anime (which need not be of
the clearest or best quality), add to it two imperial gallons of drying linseed
oil boiling, and 12lbs. of caoutchouc softened or partially dissolved by coal-
tar naphtha (as practised by the makers of waterproof clothes); mix all to-
-gether in the former vessel and boil gently until, on taking some of the
varnish between two spatulas, it is found tough and ropy. When this
“body” is quite cold, it may be thinned down with from thirty to thirty-five
gallons imperial of turpentine or of coal naphtha.
This is the best varnish I am acquainted with for the purpose of covering
iron ; it is not acted on when dry and hard by any moderately diluted acid
or caustic alkali; it does not, by long immersion, combine with water, and
form a white and partially soluble hydrate, as all merely resinous varnishes
and all oil paint do, and it is so elastic that a plate covered with it may be
‘bent several times without its peeling off; and lastly, it adheres so-fast that
nothing but a sharp-edged instrument will scratch it off the surface of iron.
_ The varnish No. 2 is of a cheaper sort, but not quite so good. Common
coal or gas tar is to be boiled in an iron caldron at so high a temperature
that the smoke from it is of a yellow dun colour, or the tar is to be caused to
flow through red-hot iron tubes. The boiling is to be continued until the
24 REPORT—1843. ;
residue is a solid asphaltum, breaking with a pitchy fracture. It is essential
that the boiling should be carried on at this high temperature, as the perma-
nency of the varnish in water depends upon the tar having been submitted
to the temperature at which naphthaline is formed by the decomposition or
breaking up of the original constitution of the tar.
Take 56lbs. of this coal-tar asphaltum, melt it in an iron vessel, add ten
imperial gallons of drying linseed oil ground with 25lbs. of red lead and
litharge in equal proportions; add to the whole, when well mixed, and after
boiling together for two or three hours, 15lbs. of caoutchoue, softened or
partially dissolved by coal naphtha (as before described) ; when cold, mix
with twenty to thirty gallons of turpentine or coal naphtha, and the varnish
is ready for use.
366. Either of these varnishes is to be applied over the whole surface of
the iron and suffered to dry ; and as this forms the final preservative coat upon
all articles except iron ships, buoys, &c. requiring to be preserved from
“ fouling,” any desirable colour may be given to it by colouring materials,
which should be peroxides not acted on by air and water.
367. The last operation, viz. that to prevent “ fouling,” now remains to be
performed upon ships, &c.; for this purpose a strong-bodied thick paint is to
be made with drying linseed oil, red lead and sulphate of barytes (or white
lead may be used, but not so advantageously), and a little turpentine. To
every 100lbs. of this paint, when mixed, is to be added 20|bs. or thereabouts
of oxychloride of copper and 3lbs. of a mixture composed of hard yellow
soap, melted with an equal weight of common resin and a little water.
The colour sold in commerce originally under the name of Brunswick green
was an oxychloride of copper. The Brunswick green of commerce at present
is a different thing, but the oxychloride of copper may be obtained at a cheap
rate by various known methods, which it is unnecessary to detail. With this
paint the whole immersed hull of the vessel is to be coated over the before-
mentioned varnish ; it must then be permitted to dry and stiffen for three or four
days before the ship is floated out of dock. The operations are now completed,
and the hull of an iron ship so treated will resist “ corrosion” and “ fouling.”
368. The principles upon which this method of protection rests may be thus
stated :—By the use of the “ preparing bath,” the surface of iron, of whatever
sort, is more effectually cleansed than has before been practicable, and all
minute particles of foreign matter removed from the surface ; and by the re-
actions which take place in the “ preparing bath,” in which metallic amides
are formed, and hydrogen evolved at the surface of the iron, a powerful ten-
dency is given to the iron to combine with other metals. Again, by the pre-
sence of the small quantity of sodium or potassium in the alloy, a greatly in-
creased tendency to combine with iron is conferred upon 7¢, while any minute
portions of oxide, either suspended in the fluid alloy, or which have escaped
the previous operations upon the surface of the iron, are reduced to metal.
Thus both metals are presented to each other in a state of absolute purity and
in the most favourable circumstances for combination.
369. But further, when the alloy, or generally any alloy of mereury with
metals electro-positive to it, is exposed to the action of a solvent, the positive
metal at the surface is first acted on, and the surface becomes shortly covered
with pure mercury. The result, therefore, of the primary reaction of air and
water on this alloy is, that the coating of the iron becomes covered with a
very thin film of amalgemated zinc, which is known not to be acted on by
fluid menstrua, except under peculiar conditions. I found no caleareous
coating formed on such a surface in sea or fresh water. The varnish laid over
this is intended as a sheathing, to give additional durability and mechanical
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. o5
protection; and also in the case of iron ships, to interpose between the cover-
ing of alloy and the final coat of poisonous paint.
370. It.was stated by Sir H. Davy, in his researches on the preservation
~ of copper sheathing, that the sole cause why it did not become ‘‘ foul” when
unprotected was, the continual loss of substance by solution and washing
away of the salts produced (the suboxide and oxychloride of copper), and
that the poisonous properties of the salts produced had nothing to do with the
matter. The only proof, however, given of this was, that fouling rapidly took
place upon a surface of Jead forming a portion of a coppered vessel's hull,
upon which there existed an abundant production of carbonate of lead. Al-
though fully aware of the powers of endurance possessed by the classes of
animals which adhere to ships, such as those of the genera Balanus, Otion,
Ascidia, Cineras, Anatifa, Ostrea, Mytilus, Dreissena, &c., still I doubted this
conclusion, from remarking that they adhered to the surface of metals, such
as zine in a rapid state of degradation or solution in sea water, but which did
not produce poisonous salts.
371. I also observed, that to perfectly clean metallic surfaces they showed
little disposition to adhere; that either a thin coat of peroxide, or of calca-
reous matter deposited from the sea-water, was necessary to their adherence ;
that the testaceous animals seemed to disregard the nature of the metal to
which they clung, provided they had a coating of calcareous matter to adhere
to, and that the same applied, to a great extent, to the growth of sea-weeds.
$72. I thence determined to make some direct experiments upon the effects
of metallic poisons upon such common molluscous or testaceous animals as I
could command, and for this purpose I chose the common oyster, the limpet
(Patella), and some of the Actinie found along the shores of Dublin Bay:
these were placed in glass vessels of sea water frequently renewed, and left
for some time without disturbance, until it was certain that the condition of
the animals was not in itself fatal or injurious to them. Then certain poison-
ous metallic salts were gradually introduced into their respective receptacles,
such as the soluble and insoluble salts of lead, copper, mercury, arsenic, &c.
373. The results of these experiments, which were continued for a long
time and made with care, showed that all these animals were more or less
subject to annoyance from substances poisonous to the higher animals; that
they were least affected by the salts of lead and mercury, and most so by
those of copper; and that, unless present in such large quantity as to be at
once fatal, the insoluble, or rather difficultly soluble salts of copper in sea
water (such as the oxychlorides and the arsenite of copper) gave them much
more uneasiness than the soluble ones. The poisonous matter, when difficultly
soluble, was sometimes merely dropped into the sea water near the animal, at
others was strewed upon a plate and the animal placed upon it. Jn every case,
when the animal was killed, the poisonous matter (at least the copper, which
was the only metal looked for) could be detected in its body after death.
$74. From these experiments, I think I am justified in concluding that the
other classes of “fouling” animals, whose habits are so analogous to those tried,
are prevented from adhering to copper sheathing in virtue of the poisonous
salts produced by the sea water acting upon it, and not merely by loss of con-
tinuity ; and that in the case of the lead cited by Davy, the animals adherent
must have been protected from the poisonous surface by a coat of calc-spar
or carbonate of lime formed upon it, or by some other unexplained circum-
stance; and that hence the production of an artificial poisonous surface upon
the bottom of an iron ship, a buoy, &c., would prevent their “fouling” also. |
375. I also made some experiments upon the effect of metallic poisons upon
sea-weeds, choosing for this purpose portions of F’wct adherent to small loose
26 REPORT—1843.
pebbles, and thus capable of transfer to a glass vessel. The results here were
not so distinct as with the animals, but proved that copper salts in solution
were decidedly deleterious to their existence. I ascertained also that marine
plants would with the greatest difficulty attach or grow upon greasy or .
varnished substances free from any film of calcareous matter or oxide of
iron.
876. From these experiments, I have been led to propose the peculiar
poisonous paint already described as a preventive to “ fouling” of iron ships;
it is in fact a method of bringing their immersed surfaces as nearly as possible
to the condition of a copper-sheathed vessel without injury to the iron. The
paint, therefore, is only a vehicle for poisonous matter, for which purpose it
is requisite that it should have sufficient adhesion to resist the ship's motion,
but still should have a slight degree of solubility in water, so that the poison-
ous matter may be taken up by the absorbent or capillary vessels of an ad-
hering animal or plant. This latter property is given it by the addition of
the resinous soap, the proportion of which must be varied to suit frigid or
tropical climates. I prefer using the oxychloride of copper as the poisonous
matter of this paint; indeed it is simply the formation of this salt that pre-
vents “fouling” of ordinary copper sheathing, but other salts will answer the
purpose.
377. The cost of protecting, by the methods described, the hull of an iron
ship, of say 130 feet keel, materials and Jabour included, and preparing her
against fouling, would add about ten shillings per ton to the cost of her
hull, an amount quite inconsiderable when balanced against durability, safety,
and speed.
378. When no attempt is made to procure complete protection from cor-
rosion, a considerable palliative consists in heating all the plates before being
put together to nearly a “ black-red” heat in a boiler-maker’s oven, immedi-
ately plunging them into boiled coal tar, and taking them out while still warm,
so that a firm varnish may form upon them; but spots of rust soon appear
even upon plates so treated.
379. It is very desirable in every iron ship, that a layer of felt saturated
in coal tar, boiled to the consistence nearly of pitch, should be interposed be-
tween not only every metallic body electro-negative to iron, as before observed,
but also between every piece of timber, of whatever sort, placed in contact
with the hull below the water-line, and most especially in the bilge. Besides
obvious mechanical reasons, this is important from the fact, that as soon as
timber begins to decay in contact with iron and sea water, the rotten wood
possesses the power of decomposing the sulphate of lime of the sea water, re-
ducing it to sulphuret, while carbonic acid evolved from the decayed timber
again decomposes the latter, producing sulphuretted hydrogen, which cor-
rodes the iron locally with great rapidity.
380. Soft wood not only rots soonest, but decays in a way that produces
these effects more rapidly than the harder timber: this fact I wouid press
upon the attention of iron ship-builders.
These remarks might be extended, with many others of importance to the
practical constructor, but for which this is not the place.
381. In conclusion, when the durability of iron vessels, as regards corro-
sion, and this is admitted alone to limit their existence, is compared with that
of timber ships in reference to their decay, the balance undoubtedly seems at
first in favour of the latter. We have examples of ships, such as the Royal Wil-
liam, built in 1719, lasting more than 100 years; the Sovereign of the Seas,
built in 1639, forty-seven years; the Barfleur, built in 1768, more than forty-
four years, &c.; but these are the rare exceptions, not the rule.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 27
~The Commissioners of Woods and Forests, in their *‘ Report of 1812, on
Timber for the Navy,’ estimated the average duration of a ship at fourteen
_years, while other authorities take it at twelve and a half years. Frigates,
when built of American red pine, seldom lasted longer than five years, and
the Ocean, Foudroyant, St. Domingo, Rodney, Ajax, and Albion, new ships,
all fell to pieces from dry rot in about four years.
382. Were it the fact, therefore, that unprotected iron vessels corroded
equally throughout every part immersed, we could easily calculate, by the aid
of our preceding researches, the durability of a ship of given scantling, and
predetermine, under such and such conditions, at what time her hull would
have become dangerously thin, and might rest with the assurance that for this
period the iron ship was the best and safest that could be put upon the waters ;
but unfortunately we have found that corrosion does not take place with per-
fect uniformity, as has been already pointed out; and hence, without pro-
tection, ships of iron must be always liable to the dangerous consequences of
local corrosion and consequent thinning down of iron at particular spots,
until at some unforeseen moment, possibly of least preparation and greatest
external peril, a decayed plate is burst through and the vessel fills. The
facility of introduction of water-tight bulk heads in iron ships greatly reduces
the danger of such an accident, but it must always be attended with danger
and loss of property, and occurring where it is most likely to happen, namely,
in the engine compartment of an iron steamer in bad weather, would be almost
eertain to involve the loss of the ship.
The more sanguine advocates of iron ship-building have, in their anxiety to
prove their durability to be such as to render protection needless, appealed to
the existence of iron canal-boats of forty years of age or more, and to some
of the earliest built iron vessels which have been occasionally in salt water.
Most of the vessels alluded to however have been principally in fresh water,
and on referring to Table XV. it will be obvious how vast a difference there
is in durability of a ship of any given sort of iron, exposed to the action of sea
and of fresh water. Thus, suppose a vessel of Low Moor plates; in one cen-
tury the depth of corrosion would be— Inch.
In clear'seawater -. .)s 2 - « « OZI5
In foul sea water. . 2. .°. « « - 07404
In clear fresh water only - . . . . 0°035
In other words, while the ship, if originally of half-inch plates, would be almost
destroyed in foul sea water, it would not have lost one-tenth of its scantling in
clear fresh water in the same time. These cases therefore prove nothing to
_ the point.
383. It therefore seems to me that protection against local corrosion and
“fouling” are essential to the safety and perfection of iron ships, and are
alone wanting to render our future iron ships as much safer and more en-
during than those of timber, as the steam ship of today is safer and more
enduring than the sailing vessel of two centuries ago.
384. The mechanical methods which have been proposed for removing
foulness from the bottoms of iron ships, namely by scraping with a large
_ wooden frame drawn under the hull by suitable rope tackle, appears quite
incapable of removing more than the mere exterior fringe as it were of the
“foulness,” or some of the larger animals when once become adherent. The
force with which both animals and plants adhere to the coat of calcareous and
rusty matter on an iron plate is very great, and no instrument sufficiently sharp,
and pressed hard enough to the ship’s hull, could probably be successfully used,
unless of iron, and this would be liable not only to injure the surface, but be-
come constantly caught against small projections of the ship’s bottom.
28 REPORT—1843.
385. But even were some methods of scraping possible, it only temporarily
removes the evil, leaving its cause untouched ; and that this cause is in such
rapid operation, at least in some localities, as to be a most serious evil, may
be illustrated by the following observations :—
Stevenson, in his account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, mentions that the
bottom of the temporary light-ship, after being newly caulked and pitched,
was found covered over with mussels (Mytili) three and a half inches long, in
three years and seven months from the time she was moored off the Bell Rock.
It is stated in the Transactions of the Wernerian Society, vol. ii. p. 243,
that the spawn of the Cirrhipoda class of fouling animals became developed
upon a feather, on which it lay before the latter had decayed in sea water,
and that they will cover a ship’s bottom in a few months.
These observations applied to wooden vessels, and the prevalent opinion
seems to be, that iron ships “foul” even more rapidly than these do in similar
circumstances.
386. The opinion that iron vessels as well as railway bars receive some
hidden power of resisting corrosion when in use which they lose at other
times, has been before alluded to.
387. The origin of this view with respect to rails is obscure. Wood, in
his ‘Treatise upon Railways,’ quotes a Report of Mr. G. Stephenson, in
which the following passage occurs :—
“One phenomenon in the difference of the tendency to rust between
wrought iron laid down as rails, and subjected to continual motion by the pass-
age of the carriages over them, and bars of the same material either standing
upright, or laid down without being used at all, is very extraordinary.
“« A railway bar of wrought iron laid carelessly upon the ground alongside
of one in the railway in use, shows the effect of rusting in a very distinct man-
ner ; the former will be continually throwing off scales of oxidated iron, while
the latter is scarcely at all affected.”
388. This is the first notice J have found of this opinion, which has since
been repeated in various quarters, but no fact, that I am aware of, has been
given to support the view which a mere casual inspection of rails so situated
suggests.
When rails lying parallel on the same line of way, but one set in and the
other out of use, are examined, appearances do undoubtedly seem to support
the opinion. The unused rails are found covered with red rust, often coming
off in scales parallel to the surface, while those in use present a light brown
or buffish coat of rust, without any loose scales. I am much disposed how-
ever to believe that there is no real difference in the amount of corrosion in
the two cases, and that the difference in appearance arises partly from a de-
ceptio visus, by the effect of the bright and polished upper face of the used
rail (kept so by constant traffic) contrasted with the rusty face of the unused
rail, and partly from the fact, that as fast as rust is formed upon the rail in
use, it is shaken off by the vibration of passing trainsyand blown away by the
draft of wind which accompanies their motion, and that the rail is soiled
and partially blackened by coke and other dust, &c.
Recently the assumed difference in rate of corrosion has received a new
version ; it has been stated that rails in use do corrode as well as those out
of use, provided the traffic pass over them in both, that is in opposite direc-
tions as on a single line of way, but do not corrode if the traffic be confined
to one direction. These results have been attributed to some undescribed
and occult magnetic action.
389. Whether either or any of these views be correct or not I am unable
at present to say, but as the subject is not only interesting in a scientific
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 29
point of view, but of practical importance, and as no correct measures as yet
exist, or at least have been published, of the amount of loss of metal by
oxidation and abrasion of railway bars, I have thought it desirable to institute
some experiments to determine, first, whether there be any difference in the
amount of corrosion of rails in and out of use; secondly, if there be any, to
discover on what the effect depends; thirdly, to distinguish numerically
between the loss due to corrosion, and that due to abrasion by traffic.
These experiments I have been enabled to commence on the Dublin and
Kingstown Railway, by the favour of the Directors of that line, and hope soon
to have others in operation upon the Ulster Railway, which is a single line,
with traffic of course in both directions over the same rails. I have not as yet
obtained any results (from insufficient lapse of time) which I can consider
trustworthy, but so far I have not been able to recognize any distinct differ-
ence of corrosion between the used and unused rails; on a future occasion,
however, I hope to be able to lay my results fully before the Association.
390. With this exception, and a few others merely of scientific interest, the
present Report completes the investigation of all. the more important prac-
tical desiderata on the subject of the corrosion of iron, &c. entrusted to me by
the British Association, and I hope that as the information obtained by its
liberal assistance becomes more known, it will be found of practical use by
all who are engaged in the constructive use of iron, the substance perhaps
‘the most valuable and important of all those with which Providence has
endowed us.
Nore py THE AUTHOR.—Since the preceding Report was sent to press, I have learnt with
satisfaction that the principles therein developed for preventing the fouling of iron ships have
been already acted on; that the Iron Queen and the Ben Ledi iron steamer have been coated
with a composition of tallow, bright varnish, arsenic, and, I believe, sulphur, and. that in the
former case all fouling was prevented; and after the vessel had made two voyages to the Tro-
pics, she was found perfectly clean when docked on her return.
From the bottom of the Ben Ledi ten tons weight of mussels and barnacles are stated to
have been removed previous to the application of the above poisonous varnish, which, although
different from that I have recommended, not so efficacious, and not harmless as regards its ree
action upon the iron hull, is still quite identical in principle with mine.
R. M.
June 26, 1843. \-
30 REPORT—1843,
Second Course of Experiments. }
Tape I.—Box a. No. 1. containing Specimens of Cast and Wrought Iron
immersed in clear Sea Water.
Sunk and moored a second time in Kingstown Harbour at the Second Buoy in from the
Western Pier Head, in three and a half fathoms water, at half tide, upon a clear sandy
bottom, on January 11, 1840, at one o’clock r.m. Weighed and removed again at same
hour on January 12, 1842; hence immersed 732 days.
Box a. No. 1. Class No.1. Welsh Cast Iron.
_
we
>
ir)
e-)
=)
|
|
~
Character
of
Corrosion. ~
Dimensions
of
Specimen.
No. of Exp. and
mark of Spec.
Weight of Speci-
men in Grains.
Weight of Speci-
men after 732
days’ immersion,
Total loss by Cor.
rosion in 732 days.
Loss of weight
per square inch
of Surface,
Loss of weight
referred to
Standard Bar,
Increment of
Corrosion.
Decrement of
Corrosion.
t
in. in, in,
5x5 x1 | 42720 | 42327 5614 | 0-633
5x5x25 | 11384 | 10895 8-890 | 1-003
5x5x1 | 43452 | 43059 5°614 | 0°633
5525 | 12209 | 11886 5°872 | 0-662
5x4x1 | 34469 | 34120 6-017 | 0-678 Uniform.
5x51 | 43200 | 42807 | 393 | 5-614 | 0-633 Uniform P.
0 Uniform P.
0
0
0
0
0: .
5x5 x25 | 11759 | 11388 6-745 | 0-761 | 0- . * | Uniform P.
0
0
0
0
0
0
Uniform P.
Uniform P.
Uniform P.
5x5x1 | 41176 | 40904 3°885 | 0-438 | 0°894)0- * | Local.
5x5 x25 | 10576 | 10413 2963 | 0334 ;
5x5x1 | 41547 | 41090 6528 | 0°736
5x5 x25 | 11169 | 10887 5°127 | 0°578
5x5x1 | 48638 | 43311 4671 | 0527
5 x> X25 | 12839 | 10949 7-090 | 0:899
COONS Or Cobo
RReEReRRKRER
i Local pitted.
? , - | Uniform P.
* | Uniform P.
K * | Uniform.
: : ‘0| Local pitted, deep.
Box a. No.1. Class No. 2. Irish Cast Iron.
a@ 14\5x5 x25 | 10479 | 10074 | 405 | 7-363 | 0-830 | 0- |4-158 0: | Local Plumbago.
@15|/5x5x1 | 40331 | 39687 | 644 | 9-200 | 1-038 | 0-023 0- 0: | Local Plumbago.
#16|5x5 x25 | 11453 | 11056 | 417 | 7-581 | 0°855}0- |8°862| O- | Uniform Plumb.
217)5x5xX1 | 42695 | 42266 | 429 | 6-128 0-691} 0° (0-099) O- | Uniform Plumb.
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 3. Staffordshire, Shropshire and Gloucestershire
Cast Irons.
3°536 * | Local Plumb.
1:870 * | Local Plumb.
4:070| 0: | Local pitted.
2-935 | 0: | Local pitted.
2-281 | 0: | Local pitted.
6:927 | 2-0) Local Plumb.
1:670| O° | Uniform.
11-299} 0 | Local Plumb.
|
218|5x5 x25) 11789 | 11387 | 402 | 7-309 | 0-824
#@19/5x5 X11 | 44352 | 43960 | 392 | 5-600 | 0-631
@20\5x4 x1 | 34412) 34141] 271 | 4-672 | 0:527
@21|5x4 x1 | 33770 | 33460 | 310 | 5-345 | 0-603
a 22'5x363X1 | 31530 | 31217 | 313 | 5°843 | 0-659
@23}5x5 25) 11900] 11573 | 327 | 5-945 | 0-670
«a 24/5X3-75xX1 | 32527 | 32324 | 203 | 3-690 | 0-416
@25|5xX3:5 x1 | 28778 | 28288 | 485 | 9-327 | 0-052
SSS2CSSS
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 81
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 4. Scotch Cast Irons.
—
.
bt
Sa
on
~
e2)
10. 11.
3 3 a 2 a # zy ea ~~ : Om 8
ag go. | 882 |o8|/52,\S28/52)5./8
aa Dimensions ae ma : 2B 3 2 8 Ses 53 s3 C3 vars Hid
° = B weeklong ‘ &
or Specimen. 25 2 BF 2S 6 ga se : ze 58 rs 2 Corrosion.
A ss Mon laso| 6n0] onS| & 5 SD
a Pole seer rt ho ee
in. in. in.
@2615%5x1 |43961| 43505 |456| 6-514 | 0734/0: |1-526] 0 | Uniform Plumb.
#27155 x25 | 11514| 11117 | 397| 7-218 | 0-814] 0° 2-924] 0- | Local Plumbago.
@28)5 5x1 | 43276 | 42856 | 420) 6:000 | 0-676|0- 1-798 | 0: | Local Plumbago.
w 29|\5%5 x25 | 11527 | 11193 | 334 | 6-072 | 0-685|0- |3:300} 0: | Local Plumbago,
# 30\5x5x1 | 43085 | 42604 | 481 | 6871 | 0:777|0- —|2-565 | O° | Local Plumbago.
@ 31\5 x5 x25 | 11671] 11395 |276| 5-018 | 0:566|0- 4-107} O- | Uniform Plumb.
a@32|5x5x1 | 48834 | 42975 | 859 | 5-128 | 0°578)0- |3:000} O° | Uniform.
«@ 33|5x5 x25 | 11404] 11064 |340| 6-181 | 0°697|0- |6:072| 0° | Local Plumbago.
@84|5x5xX1 | 43558 | 43279 |279| 3-985 | 0:-449/0- 2-632) 0 | Uniform.
#35155 x25 | 11275 | 10910 | 365 | 6636 | 0-748|0- 4-852) 0- | Local Plumbago.
@36|5x5xX1 | 42172) 41844 | 328] 4-685.| 0:528|0- {2-394} 0- | Uniform.
@ 37|5 x5 X25 | 11265 | 10913 | 352 | 6-400 | 0:717|0- 5-107} O° | Local Plumbago.
2 38}5x5 X25 |11238| 10747 |491| 8-927 | 1:007|0- |6:041) 0° | Local Plumbago.
| @39|5x5x1 |43700| 48337 | 3635-186 | 0:585|0- 0-399) O- | Uniform.
| @40|5 x5 x25 | 11147 | 10676 | 471 | 8563 | 0-966|0- 7-143] 0: | Local Plumbago,
|@41|5x5x1 | 42574 | 42275 | 299| 4-271 | 0-481/0- 0-902) 0° | Uniform.
w 42)5x5 X25 | 11701 | 11204] 497 | 9-036 | 1:019|0- |3:983| 0: | Local Plumbago.
#43|5x5xX1 | 44269 | 43870 | 399 |5-700 | 0643 |0- —|1-627| 0° | Local pitted.
@ 4415525 | 10916 | 10479 | 437 | 7-945 | 0:896/0- 17-030) 0- | Local Plumbago.
@45|/5x5X1 | 43184] 42625 | 559 | 7-985 | 0-900 | 1-311)0- 0: | Uniform.
| @ 46|5 x5 X25 | 11343 | 10830 | 513 | 9327 | 1:052)0- {5-089 | O- | Local Plumbago.
@47\5x5xX1 | 42575 | 42120 | 455 | 6-500 | 0-733 | 0-426)/0- 0: | Local pitted.
| @ 48|5%5x25 | 11449 | 10995 | 454 | 8-254 | 0:931)0- |3-687| 0 | Local Plumbago.
@49|)5x5xX1 | 43061 | 427386 | 325 | 4-642 | 0523/0 3-056) 0: | Local pitted.
| @50|5x5 x25 | 11754] 11285 | 469| 8-527 | 0:962|0- {4-852} O- | Local Plumbago.
--|@51|5xX5xX1 | 43911 | 48639 | 272 | 3-885 | 0-438}0- {1-196 | O- | Uniform.
@52\5xX5x1 | 43781 | 43277 | 504| 7-200 | 0:812)0- {1-534} 0: | Local pitted.
@ 5315x525 | 11381 | 10942 | 439 | 7-981 | 0:900|0- [4-431 | O- | Local Plumbago.
@54)5x5x1 | 43429 | 43039 | 390| 5-571 | 0-628)0- {0-795 |11-0| Local pitted.
@55|5x%5xX25 | 11380) 10953 | 427 | 7-763 | 0°875|0- |5:366| 1-0| Local Plumbago.
@56/5x5x1_ | 43026 | 42598 | 428 | 6114 | 0-689 | 3-274)0- 0- | Uniform P.
@ 57|5x5x25 | 11025 | 10652 | 373 | 6-781 | 0:765)0- = |8-175) O- | Uniform P.
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 5. The Standard Bar of Wrought Iron.
0.4
Box a. No.1. Class No. 6. Scotch Cast Iron. Chilled.
1058 Fibre exposed with
metallic lustre.
23582 5°951
5x3 x°'875 | 23972
390 | 8863
1:000 | 0°
| «59
cd a 60
5x5x<1
5x5xl1
42042
43034
41578
42525
464
509
6:628
7271
0-747
0-820
0:
0
2-606
3°806
0-
0-
Uniform.
Local pitted.
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 7. Welsh Cast Iron. Chilled.
a 61
a 62
5x5x1
5x5x1
41538
43251
41126
42619
412
632
5°885
9-028
0°663
1:018
0-
0:
3'339
3:497
0:
0-
Uniform P.
Local pitted.
Box a. No. I. Class No.8. Staffordshiré Cast Iron: Chilled.
%
32 1) Wa > RRBORTSAIS43, R145: SHR UR
_
:
oF
=
ks
— | —_— —_— | | | | ———___|-——__ _
' ‘ . 24° &
a Sudip al eS bait 4 g
Eg ge | eas |/Seies |B aly S.18
i) ae |aee |pS}/ Pes | PSs ioc] 28 les
we Dimensions So #52 \2 2|$2s | fya | Ge 33 a2 cag gs
Rs of = 8 age l/uaee les o | os
sx Specimen, an 7] hy = 2 SBA ese (2k) SE |22 “Gortpslan;
co A o% -~ mn Ow ne =) }
ge S2 | S22 /$3)§5°)8"2 18°] Ao js
Pe Te Slee] = =
| | | | a | | | | |
42000 5:642 | 0-636 | 0° | 4-207} O- | Local Plumb.
43381 6-957 | 0-784} 0+ | 2-352] O- | Local pitted.
* Box a. No.1. Class No. 9. Irish Cast Iron. Chilled.
Uniform P.
Local pitted.
«65 0:
a 66
6-500
7242
0:733
0-817
41841 | 455
41781 | 507 2:872
0: | 3624
5x5 x1: | 42288
5x5 xl bes
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 10. Mixed Cast Irons.
@67|5xX5 xI1* | 42875 | 42540) 835 | 4-785 | 0-539 | O- | 2-951} 5:0} Uniform.
#68|5X5 x1: |41970| 41534 | 436) 6-228 | 0-702} 0- | 4-588] 0- | Local Plumb.
a 69 P x5 XI | 41140 | 40652 | 488) 6-971} 0-787) O- | 2-725} O- | Uniform.
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 11. Cast Irons of Messrs. Fairbairn’s and
Hodgkin’s Experiments.
a 70|3 x 1:25 x 1-25} 8926 | 8802 |124| 7-481} 0-844) 0: | 7-445] O- | Uniform P. ~
@71j4x1- x1 | 7332 | 7149 |183)10-166| 1-147} 0- | 4-176] O- | Uniform P.
a@72\4x1- XI | 7061 | 6941 | 120! 6-666) 0:752| 0: | 5-931] 0 | Uniform P.
a@73\4x1- x1: | 7733 | 7610 |123| 6-833 | 0:770| 0: | 4:388| 0- | Uniform P.
a74\4xl- xI1- | 7301} 7112 | 189 10-500} 1-184; 0+ | 2-949} O- | Local Plumb.
“275\4x1- x1: | 7826 | 7670 |156| 8-666) 0-977; 0° | 2-859] O- | Local Plumb:
@76\4xl- xI+ | 7215 | 7117 | 98} 5-444! 0-614 | 0: | 5-732) O- | Uniform.
Box a. No.1. Class No.12. Gray Cast Iron. Skin removed by Planing.
9-477 | 1-069 | 0- [10556 | 0: | Uniform Plumb.
077 bx.
x *73| 88595 | 32979 | 616)
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 33
Second Course of Experiments.
Tas_e III.—Box f. No.2. containing Specimens of Cast and Wrought
Tron immersed in foul Sea Water.
Sunk and moored a second time in the Foul Sea Water close to the mouth of the Great Kings-
town main sewer, on a bottom of soft, putrid mud, on the 13th January, 1840, at one
o’clock p.m. Weighed again and removed January 14, 1842, at same hour. Immersed
732 days. ’
Box 6. No.2. Class No.1. Scotch Cast Irons.
2. 3. 4, | 5. 6." 7. 8. 9. | 10. 11.
So |, es ons 3 & so. Ss 23
ea Dimensions as e322 3 2 ze BS ae ss a Character
<a Specimen. Es Se5 2s aS Re £5) 55 se Corrosion.
a es =Ow | Ss 25 26 iS) oO | o's
35 S2 |fF5/82|/ 52 | S2 |= a |8
in. in. in.
B 1) 5x5x1 | 42674 | 42164} 510] 7-285 | 0°821) 0-701) 0- 0- |Uniform.
B 2) 5x5x1 | 43046 | 42326 | 720 /|10-285 | 1-160) 0- 2-983} 0: |Local Plumb. deep.
Box £. No. 2. Class No.2. Welsh Cast Iron.
0-
0-
Uniform.
3°285
Local Plumb. deep:
10°457
0-370
1:179
230
732
3
4
5x5x<1
5x5x1 0- 3°893
RB
0- | 0-394
42160 | 41930
43032 | 42300
Box £. No. 2. Class No. 3. Staffordshire Cast Iron.
Local Plumbago.
Uniform.
767)
0:985
41700 | 537
43527 | 69
5x5x1
5x5xl1
42237
BS 0:842 | 3-978
Bé 43596 0111/0: |1-670| 0
0: | 0-
Box f. No.2. Class No.4. Irish Cast Iron.
0-
0-
Uniform.
Local Plumbago.
543
419
7757
5:985
0°875
0-675
41442
41938
41985
42357
5x5x1
5x5xl1
2-361) 0:
0- 8-236
Box f. No. 2. Class No. 5. Mixed or alloyed Cast Iron.
B 9} 5x5x1 | 43051 | 42811 | 240) 3-428] 0:386 | 0- 1:218) 0: |Local pitted.
610) 5x5x1 | 42051 | 41255 | 796 |11-085 | 1-250 | 3-280) 0- 0: |Local pitted, deep.
{B 11) 5x5x1 | 42029 | 41548 | 481] 6871} 0-775 | 0-982) 0- 0: |Local pitted.
Box f. No. 2. Class No.6. Standard Bar of Wrought Iron.
" B 12 e875 x3 x-875|23436|22901(535| 1243 1-402 | 0- | 6-000] 0: |Uniform Fibrous.
Box 8. No. 2. Class No.7. Gray Cast Iron. Skin removed by Planing.
p13 |5x5-x75| 33150 | 315541596] 2455 | 2-769 |0- | 0-580] 0+ |Uniform Plumb.
1843. > D
34 -REPORT—1843.
tt ttn a
Taste II.—Wrought Iron and Steel Series.
Supplementary Box a', No.l.
Sunk along with Box No. 1. in Clear Sea Water, Kingstown Harbour, January 11, 1840,
left to right, going from observer outwards; and upwards in same order.) Weighed
Observations of column 3rd ;—T C. Tabular-crystalline. C C. Coarse-crystalline. F. Fibrous.
Supplementary Box a’. No.1. Class
so og * 2 os a 3 .
ag go) Sore Be) ee eee eee
Gn se | £ |Sla| 2 | sé | oss| g82
mS Commercial character, &c. ae e..| 2 ee | Se | Sex | sex
SH es | & (el | BB | So | Se. | SER
Sf 2. | 2 |8° | gf | s& |see)as~
ZF as . o | BB BTS
a 1 |Finis* bar, For. of Dean, Glouc.| F | rolled |7-6795| 9-619) 4188} 4091] 97
a’ 2 |Red short bar, Staffordshire....} F | rolled |7:6983| 11-687} 4736) 4610} 126
e 8 |Cold short bar, Burchill’s, Staff.| C | rolled |7-6514| 11-151) 5604] 5456] 148
a A |Common bar, Shropshire, soft...| C | rolled |7-5870| 21-50 | 7448| 6671| 777
a 5 |Puddled bar, Cinderford......... TC | rolled |7:5470 | 22-25 | 9883) 9695| 188
a’ 6 \Common boiler plate, Banks...) CC | rolled |7-6631 | 38-00 | 11388] 10985] 403
a 7 \Best English bar, Bradley .,.... F rolled |7:7195 | 22:00 | 7763) 7492| 271
a § |Finished Welsh bar, Doulais....| F rolled |7-6550 | 26-50 | 18744 | 13457 | 287
a 9 \Finished Welsh bar, Doulais....} F rolled |7:5909 | 25:28 | 11983} 11759| 224
5
bo
bo
S
~~
bo
i)
ie 2)
i—)
a 10 |Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais....| © C | rolled |7:5885 | 23-25 2) 2
#11 |Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais.,..} CC | rolled |7:6493 | 26:25 | 11200| 10968) 232
a’ 12 |Damaskedbariron,Birmingham} F jhamm4|7-7917| 11-88 | 2578| 2428} 150
«13 \Low Moor boiled plate. ......... F | rolled |7:7556 | 38-00 | 11775] 11455} 320
a 14 |Faggotted scrap iron bar ...,..} F & C jnamm®|7*7562 | 22-57 | 8251] 8194| 57
a 15 |Swedish bar, Dannemora.......} FC | rolled |\7°8204 | 22-00 | 8004| 7766) 238
«16 |Bariron of Roscoe’s cast steel...|. F {hamm?|7-5839 | 21:50 | 7670) 7417| 253
«17 \Com.bar,Shrops.,casehardened| F rolled |7°6533 | 22:00 | 7814} 7591] 223
a’ 18 |Blister steel, Roscoe’s, soft...... FC |thamm?!7-8461 | 21-50 | 8306} 8054| 252
a’ 19 |Shear steel, Roscoe’s, soft....... FC |hamm?)7-7395 | 21-00 | 7756) 7492| 264
a 20 |\Cast steel in ingot, Roscoe...... Cc cast |7:4413 | 22:50 | 10652 | 10362) 290
a 21 |Spring steel, Bradley’s, soft..... FC | rolled |7:8076 | 27°50 | 5904} 5616] 288
a’ 22 |Spring steel, Bradley’s, temper‘) FC | rolled |7:7809| 28:45 | 6272) 5936| 336
2’ 23 \Caststeel, hard as poss., Roscoe} FC |hamm*|7:6798| 21-75 | 7605| 7401) 204
Cast steel, tilted, soft, Roscoe | FC |hamm‘|7:7983 | 21-7, 7626| 7335) 291
Boxa’. No.1. Class 14. Zinked
a 25 |Zinked iron $-in. bolt.........-++ 30
4 Cast iron coated with zine cc \ ‘ i
a 26 leh apa stich } eray cast |7:1380 | 70:00 | 48296 | 43128) 168
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 35
First Course of Experiments. First immersion.
Wrought Iron, Steel, and Zinked Iron.
at one o’clock p.m. (The lid of box draws off to the right of observed; numbers read from
and removed with Box a. No. 1, January ‘12, 1842; hence immersed 732 days.
F&C. Fibrous and Crystalline. FC. Fine Crystalline. C. Crystalline, é. e. mean size.
No. 13. Wrought Iron and Steel.
—
im
11. | 12. 13.
2 » a]
S85 | S08 |s., 2
See |S3q ae: ee
485 /1% FES 8 Character of Corrosion. er
efq| ese | os 3
ow o*S |'o S
Ha | 21s
—— eee a | SS
0: | Skin at the sides sound, ends fibrous .....seesescseneeensveesete POSE C Hot
0: | Fibrous at sides and ends........., Beer phiecigae sate et: 4 seqhape rose Hot
0: | Fibrous at sides and ends, principally at sides......sescesseee abajepes +.|Hot
0: | Straight fibre uniformly exposed, lustre silvery ...... gage oweniagswive «04 Cold
0: | Fibre everywhere exposed, small patches of skin sOUNd...++4.«++++++0¢ Cold
0: | Fine distinct lamina, perpendicular to sides, ends and edges smooth. | Hot
0: | Fibre straight, uniformly exposed......... teeceececdenccasennaceessneveese Hot
0: | Fibre equally exposed all over...........+. icceetes cegssens Cold
0: | Fibre visible all over, but skin sound on edges.........ssseeceereeessenes Hot
0: | Fibre not very apparent, tangled....,..... phececsedopenss dim stare te seecoee| Hot
0: | Fibre exposed at ends, skin sound on sides, action local.......«+- »e+e{Cold
0: | Fibre uniformly and beautifully developed. .........+4+ sneosaecesnoaseesf{COld
0: | Edges lamellar, sides smooth and uniformly corroded.......0.-+er++ess Cold
0: | Fibre developed at ends and edges, corrosion local .............++se+++ +
0: | Corrosion nearly confined to the ends, reduced to fibrous brushes. |Cold
0- | Fibre visible, corrosion nearly unifOrm..........cecscseeceeseseecesereenees %
0: . | Fibre visible, corrosion nearly uniform ,...45...-eeeeesees epededqnanas +--«{Cold
0: | Fibre developed, subcrystalline, corrosion nearly uniform .......++++ hy
0: | Corrosion nearly uniform, smooth, no fibrous structure visible.......} ,,
0: | Crystalline structure developed, plumbago of a silvery lustre .,..... i
0: | Fibre scarcely visible, corrosion unifOrm .........ces.sceseneeneeecesentes F |
0: | Without fibre, smooth, locally pitted .....cecccs.cecceeee Pree APR RS Fe A
0: | Without fibre, smooth, nearly uniform....... aasnwdeudssapaiansene em sabiiins
0: | Fibre scarcely visible, corrosion nearly uniform ...........e0essseeseeees
| i 3:83 | 0-432 |0-0 { Corroded at the ends slightly, zinking, black, brittle, and easily
detached. as
‘2-40 | 0-270 14-0 { Paint still visible, but reduced to oxides of zinc and iron, skin of a7
metal sound.......... DG UseNeach Vavetbecectaseteatamreesacadexast svaseduae
D2
36
REPORT—1843.
TasLe IV.—Wrought Iron Series.
Box B. No. 2. Class 8.
Rice
Commercial character of fron, &c.
No. of Ex
mark of
Finis‘ bar, For. of Dean, Glouc.
Red short bar, Staffordshire ....
Cold short bar, Burchill.........
Common bar, Shropshire, soft .
Puddled bar, Cinderford.........
\Common boiled plate, Banks...
Best English bar, Bradley ......
Finished Welsh bar, Doulais ...
Finished Welsh bar, Doulais ...
Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais ...
Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais ...
Damasked iron, Birmingham...
Low Moor, boiler plate .........
Faggotted scrap iron bar
TACT TTR DDD DAMIR
BO BO OO ND te
B27
Swedish iron, Dannemora ......
Bar iron of Roscoe’s steel ......
Com. bar, Shrops., case harden
Blister steel, Roscoe
ae eneeeeeces
Shear steel, Roscoe....... aaaen
Cast steel in ingot, Roscoe......
Spring steel, soft, Bradley ......
Spring steel, tempered
weeeeeees
Cast steel, tilted, Roscoe
B 39 |Zinked wrought iron bolt ......
Cast iron coated with zine
Pa PAUL eeerbescepenasaceccoe }
External charac.
ter of Fracture,
bole!
FC
Cast steel, hard as poss., Roscoe} F C
FC
bright
grey
3 |B > hw B21 eo | we
e leslie | 22 | 28 | 238 | gee
erie BE | SO | Gaz! see
e |e" | g2 | 28 | 208) ska
oS 15m Be | 29 oS
Ble [9 | gac|ee-|Par
rolled |7-6795| 9-62 | 4181| 3967] 214
rolled |7-6983}11-69 | 4758| 4465| 293
rolled |7-6514|11-15 | 5560} 5342| 218
rolled |7-5870| 21-50 | 7191| 6827| 364
rolled |7:5470|22-25 | 9164) 8645| 519
rolled |7-6631 | 38-00 |11309| 10484| 825
rolled |7:7195 | 22-00 | 7772| 7409| 363
rolled |7-6550 | 26-50 | 13902 | 13243| 659
rolled |7-5909 | 24-68 | 11736|11248| 488
rolled 175385 | 23-25 |10047| 9591| 456
rolled |7-6493 | 26-25 |11115| 10635| 480
hamm¢/7:7917| 11-88 | 2649| 2332} 317
rolled |7:7556 | 38-00 | 11992|11392| 600
hamm4/7*7562 | 22-57 | 8206| 7872| 334
rolled |7-8204| 22-31 | 7961| 7330| 631
hammé¢|7-5839 | 21-50 | 7467| 6950| 517
rolled |7-6533| 22-00 | 7818| 7118| 700
hamm4|7-8461 | 21:50 | 8331! 7973| 358
hamm¢|7-7395 | 21-50 | 7621| 7052| 569
cast 7-443 | 22-50 | 10838 10508| 330
rolled |7:8076/27-50 | 5918| 5512| 406
rolled |7:7809| 28-05 | 6238| 5686| 552
hamm¢/7-6798/21-50 | 7911| 7549| 362
hamm4|7-7983 | 23:00 | 7794| 7293) 501
cast 771380 | 38-45 | 21790 | 21673} 117
67
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 37
Box £. No. 2, First immersion.
Wrought Iron and Steel.
Character of Corrosion,
of Surface,
Standard Bar.
ight of Water
absorbed,
|e
Loss of Weight
referred to
per square inch
Loss of Weight
Fibre straight, developed all over, most at the ends
Fibre straight, developed all over, most at the ends ........ edepesiaced
Fibre straight, developed all over, most at the ends
Fibre straight, developed uniformly all over...... Pouetvstbncsansse wieGee
Fibre tangled, corrosion local and pitted
Sides smooth, slightly pitted, edges and ends lamellar
Fibre straight, developed all over, but unequally.......... ss ate paite due
Fibre finely developed, corrosion nearly uniform at ends and sides .
Fibre straight, corrosion nearly uniform, most at ends .....s0.... hey:
Fibre tangled, corrosion principally at the edges, local and pitted...
Fibre badly developed, corrosion chiefly at the edges, local and pitted.|Cold
Fibre straight, deeply and beautifully developed........ CHAU Pts Cold
Lamellar on the edges, sides smooth, corrosion local and in pits ...|Cold
Fibre developed at the ends, sides and edges smooth, corrosion local,
Fibre developed at edges and ends, very deep at one end, corro-
sion local
Fibre straight, strongly developed, corrosion local and pitted
Fibre developed uniformly all Over ..........ssecsccnececceseeecesconeeee --|Cold
Fibre developed at ends only, corrosion uniform at sides and edges.
Corrosion nearly uniform, metal locally removed in mammillary
Pits, fibre or spicula at ends
Corrosion uniform, crystalline structure developed (crystals cross-
ing at angles of 60° and 120°), silvery plumbago i
Fibre uniformly developed, edges lamellar
Fibre uniformly developed, edges lamellar, corrosion slightly local...
* | Corrosion almost uniform, no fibre developed
0: Fibre straight, imperfectly developed, corrosion local in mammil-
Lary pitas nevec CHM sites vspuevvaes Wetted, atITit atenteten ahd
18:29
26:68
15-76
14:79
28°28
24°05
31°82
16°65
| 26-46
| 14:67
| 14:76
| 19°68
| 16-84
”
Cold
ax
SOP PS F FSS S SESSSSSOSSSOSCSS
Cast and Wrought Iron. First immersion.
1 855 1965 |0-0 Fibre visible at ends, sides smooth, zinking, black, brittle and easily
detached.
3-04 13-44 19-0 Paint still discernible, as a coat of mixed oxides of zine and iron, yi
pitted in some spots : &
38
- and
pec.
No. of Ex
mark of
Moy yaoo
i
OO OND Or
| BEPORT—1843.
TasLE VI.—Wrought Iron Series.
Box 6. No. 4. Class No. 8. {
2 3. 4, 5. 6. de
Si 2 Bm a 1g a 3 2
ze | 2 1E | se | oe |S8el gee
Commercial character of Iron, &c, sé és es 2 es se S 88 238
oo b= =| Sena
Bs | EB ign | Se | Be Sse gis
a 5 ise] ee) n = | 53 BO
Finished bar, Forest of Dean...) F. | rolled |7-6795| 9°62 | 4150 |
Red short bar, Staffordshire ...| +F | rolled |7-6983| 11:51 | 4746
Cold short bar, Burchill......... Cj rolled |7-6514) 11:15 | 5620
Common bar, Shropshire, soft} C__ | rolled |7-5870| 21:50 | 7207
Puddled bar, Cinderford......... TC | rolled |7:5470| 19-19 | 8655
Common boiler plate, Banks...) TC | rolled |7-6631 | 38-00 | 11126
Best English bar, Bradley ...... F | rolled |7-7195 | 22-57 | 7761
Finished Welsh bar, Doulais...| F | rolled |7-6550 | 26-50 | 18933
Finished Welsh bar, Doulais...) F | rolled |7-5909 | 25-28 | 11906
Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais ...| CC | rolled |7-5885 | 23:25 | 10187
Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais ...). CC | rolled |7-6493 | 25-50 | 10858
Damasked iron, Birmingham...|. F |hamm¢/7-7917 | 12-89 | 2771
Low Moor boiler plate ......... F | rolled |7-7556 | 38-00 | 11459
Faggotted scrap iron bar......... F & C |hamm*|7-7562 | 22:57 | 8087
Swedish iron, Dannemora ...... FC | rolled |7-8204 | 22-32 7817
Bar iron of Roscoe’s steel ...... F |hamm®|7-5839 | 22-49 | 7307
Com.bar,Shrops.,casehardened| F __ | rolled |7:6533 | 22:00 | 7718
Blister steel, Rosco€ .....++-++«: FC |hamm4|7-8461 | 22:32 | 8271
Shear steel, Roscoe...........+.:- FC ‘hamm4|7‘7395 | 21:50 | 7686
Cast steel in ingot, Roscoe...... C | cast |7-4413 | 22:50 | 10934
Spring steel, soft, Bradley...... FC_ | rolled |7:8706 | 28-04
Spring steel, tempered, Bradley} FC | rolled |7-7809 | 28-99
Cast steel, hard as poss., Roscoe] FC hamm*|7-6798 | 21:75
Cast steel, tilted, Roscoe ...... FC hamm 7:7983 | 22:50
3 39 |Zinked iron bolt.........csecee00 F
6 40
Cast iron coated with zinc | | CC
PAINS) (us deoesedsevdy denen «J |gray
hamm*)7-5830| 7:83 | 2422) 2391
cast |7°1380 | 38°45 | 19507 | 19559
* Weight increased by oxidation of the zinc,
31
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 39
\
Box 6. No. 4. First immersion. .
Wrought Iron and Steel.
10. | Lk. | 12. 13. 14,
#: |3,8|2, 3
Sag/ Ss 'Q/ed oS .
i g s/F Rese : a
S88] %5 =| Ree Character of Corrosion. 68
oe%| soa | a2 3
21-93 | 2-474 |0' | Very locally and deeply acted on, fibre developed at the ends ..... ..[Hot
18°33 | 2-068 |0- | Very locally and deeply acted on, fibré developed at the ends ....: {Hot
25:92 | 2-924 |0- | Very locally and deeply acted on, fibre developed at the ends ....... Hot
22-75 |2°566 | 0: | Fibre st¥aight, corrosion uniform .1........ as PUL EREL A Ae Cold
10-94 | 1-234 |0- | Fibre tangled, indistinct, corrosion uniform ...... Baia soa jisttasses. (Cold
| 12-82 | 1-446 | 0: | Larfiellar on the edges, sides slightly pitted, cotrosion local.......... Hot
15:07 | 1-700 | 0- | Fibre straight, corrosion nearly tiniforin .....4:....02.: Pehesick ads Hot
11°89 | 1-341 | 0° | Fibre straight; corrosion nearly uniform «....4....é050.2 ss s0ec0eteeccs226./00ld
13-02 | 1-469 |0- | Fibre straight, corrosion nearly uniform, ends more acted on .;:,.:.{Hot
1868 | 1-543 | 0: | Fibre ees, indistinct, corrosion local Pa arate ati seseesseese[ELOt
_ E J | Fibre tangled, corrosion loéal and pitted, a few spicular crystals
14-00 | 1:579 |0 { PLOPEUR MTOM Vite CUGCS clentscadsrestoscaceaakcrtaccsdccsecacesccaccecch ald
| 19°39 | 2-187 |0- | Fibre straight, deeply and beautifully developed, lustre silvery....... Cold
9:97 | 1-124 |0- | Lamellar on the edges, corrosion somewhat local, and pitted......... Cold
17-28 | 1-949 |0- | Fibre straight, locally developed, corrosion most at the ends..........| ,,
7-79 |0-878 | 0: | Locally pitted, no-fibre developed, except at the ends :......:.. se4.../Cold
15-52 | 1-751 |0: | Fibre wavy, strongly developed, much corroded locally at both ends . y
7-82 | 0-882 |0- | Fibre straight, uniform Corrosion........::secccsccecssesseedeeecesseeessede Cold
8:87 | 1-001 |0- | Fibre indistinct, smooth uniform corrosion, sub-cryst. struct. visible .|_,,
. Y . {| Corrosion uniform, smooth, no fibre visible, mammillary pits on
18-21 |1-490 | 0 { BIGCN BUD OMON sac se cdl dmeenecOyadesecuessatusausercabacenates sei BAe 2
17-73 | 2-000 | 0- "| Corrosion uniform, crystal. structure developed, with silv. plumbago «| ,;
10°82 | 1-220 | 0: | Corrosion local, pitted on sides, lamellar edges and ends .2:...4.1..4.
13°01 | 1-467 | 0 { Corrosion local; pitted on sides; fibre straight, and developed me
} SONGS AUG, COBEN Jicscn88si433cactoniciswcnsisccisshidesodatelvetsvesess a
11-22 | 1-265 Corrosion uniform, smooth, no fibre developed ..............00...ece00e oo
0:
10:58 | 1-193 | 0- | Corrosion uniform, smooth, no fibre devel., local pitting at oneend .|_,,
. Cast and Wrought Iron. First immersion:
= — - S
pi 3-96 | 4-47 100 Fibre or spicula at both ends, sides smooth, zinc black and brittle,
es easily detached, surface beneath bright. aa
4] 5-0 Surface covered with a crust of oxides of zinc and iron, bluish- a77
(hae Pa it white colour, corroded beneath in spots: hot
40, boa) won oo) REPORT—1843.
Second Course of Experiments.
‘TasLe V.—Box 6. No. 4. containing Specimens of Cast and Wrought Iron,
&c. immersed in foul River Water.
Sunk and moored a second time, in mid-stream of the river Liffey at Dublin, opposite the
junction of the Poddle river therewith, on the 13th day of January, 1840, at one o’clock
P.M., on a bottom of putrid mud. Weighed again and removed, January 14, 1842, at same
hour. Immersed 732 days.
Bex 6. No. 4. Class No. 1. Scotch Cast Iron.
a re ee
2.
1. 3 4 5 6. 7 8. 9 10. 1l
3 a8 |e sisline 5
Bs 82 | 888 is8|/3../2.8/3./ 3.18
&.% | Dimensions as a o | ES aos 38 2s gs eg Character
aS of So | See (2h See | SEE) 23 | 28 [ce of
% 4 | Specimen. =5 = “8 a cEa cee) 2s | BE a 2 Corrosion
in. in, in,
6 1) 5x5x1 | 41145 | 40894 | 251) 3585) 0-404; O- | 2-465) O- |Uniform.
6 2) 5x5x1 | 42885 | 42626 | 259 3-700} 0:417| O- | 3-915) O- |Local Plumb. deep.
Box 5. No. 4. Class No. 2. Welsh Cast Iron.
6 3) 5x51 | 42181 | 42025 | 156| 2:228| 0-251) O- | 2-845) 0. |Uniform.
6 4| 5x5x1 | 42908 | 42690 | 213 | 3-042| 0:343| O- | 4547) O- |Uniform Plumbago.
Box &. No. 4. Class No. 3. Staffordshire Cast Iron.
6 5| 5x51 | 44857| 44703 | 154 | 2-200, 0:°343| 0: | 0549) O- |Pitted.
6 6| 5x5x1 | 48478 | 43345 | 133} 1-900] 0-214] 0 | 3-036) 0° |Pitted.
Box 6. No. 4. Class No. 4. Irish Cast Iron.
6 7| 5x51 | 40305 | 40095 | 210} 3:000| 0338) O- | 4-661) 0- |Uniform.
6 8| 5x5x1 | 42241 | 42033 | 208 | 2:857| 0321) 0: | 4-706) 0- |Uniform.
Box 6. No. 4. Class No. 5. Mixed or alloyed Cast Iron.
6 9|5x5x1 | 44473 | 44296 | 177 | 2-528| 0-285| O- | 3328) 0: |Uniform.
610) 5x51 | 42147 | 41919 | 228} 3-257 | 0-367| O- | 2:676} O° |Uniform Plumb.
611) 5x5x1 | 91981 | 41809 | 172 | 2-457 | 0°:277| O- |38:525) O- |Pitted.
Box 6. No. 4. Class No. 6. Standard Bar of Wrought Iron.
: Sides smooth, ends
612 |5x3x°875 24038 23781 215 08 v63s| 0- sou 0° fibrous, straight,
silvery lustre.
Box 6. No. 4. Class No. ’7. Gray Cast Iron. Skin removed by Planing.
6.13 {5x8 x-75| 33674 | 38169 | 505 7-769| 0-876 0 |2-707| 0- | niform Plumb.
eh ic et i anal Nl cs lhc A ln Nh ec
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 4Y
Second Course of Experiments.
Taswr VII—Box'e. No. 5, containing Specimens of Cast and Wrought
Iron immersed in clear fresh River Water.
Sunk and moored in the clear, unpolluted water of the River Liffey, above the Tidal Limits,
~.at the Royal Military Hospital, Kilmainham, on the 13th of January, 1840, at one o’clock
p.M.. Weighed again and removed on the 14th of January, 1842; hence immersed
732 days.
Box e. No. 5. Class No. 1. Scoteh Cast Iron.
_
_—
.
a i | | a | | | | | S|
ie Ce Pea a 5
5 a Ow i) i= 2 ao : ¢ a
a3 Sy ge | 333 Belme smoke) saf 5.48, %
ae ag ne | a> |2s See ate esloe8 [ey mas
o bs} i 7 Ci
7] = 8 Parc} “2 on b> Sul oz O'R Sea 2'R
AS is) oa saa AY lass) ube | ae He os ae
593 n= Phat Hilson] SS0}Sk}] SE | Hx E
‘Sa 28. a2 | een |eh (oes) cseles| &s (34 a6
:a rah oe |oee|SE| 38°] 38S) 8°) 8° |o* Or
o ic} nim
Z BA TERE S [Ae [A 5
i | ee
re 42940 12s 86 | 1:228) 0-138) O°} 0-131) 0- | Uniform.
1 | 48493} 43415! 78 | 1-°114} 0°125| 0: |.0:641}.0- | Pitted.
Box A No. 5. Class No. 2. Welsh Cast Iron.
0-
0:
55
76
42430
42847
Uniform.
Pitted.
42485
42923 1:085| 0°122| 0: | 0:886
a a 0- | 0-692
Box e. No. 5. Class No.3. Staffordshire Cast Iron.
5x5x1_ |43457| 43386! 71 | 1-014| 0-114] 0: | 0-573 0- | Pitted.
661 5xX5xX1. | 44095 |44050| 45 | 0-642] 0-072] 0: | 0-796| 0: | Pitted.
Box e. No. 5. Class No. 4. Irish Cast Iron.
e7| 5x5x1_ |43024| 42935 | 89 | 1-271] 0-143| 0- | 0-409|0- | Pitted.
e8| 5X5 X1 | 43835 | 43768] 67 |0-957| 0-107} 0- | 1-322|0- | Pitted.
Box e. No.5. Class No 5. Mixed or alloyed Cast Irons.
te 9 °5X5X1_ | 44125 | 44060) 65 | 0-928) 0:104) 0- | 0-647) 0- | Pitted.
}el0} 5x5 xX 1 | 43581 | 43525 | 56 10-800) 0-090) 0- | 0394/0: | Pitted.
ell} 5X5 x1 | 42975) 42907 | 68 | 0-971} 0:109) 0O- | 0°705| 0° | Pitted Plumb.
Box e. No. 5. Class No. 6. Standard Bar of Wrought Iron.
corres
Fibre locally de-
veloped most!
¢ 12) 51375 X3x875 | 24426 | 24384 | 92
hs on the ends.
2:041) 0:230| 0: | 0-225 of
Box e. No. 5. Class No.7. Gray Cast Iron. Skin removed by Planing.
e183 5x5x75 | 38922 | 33846 | 76 |1-169| 0-131 0: 1:942 | 0- | Uniform P.
———
42 REPORT—1843,
Taste VIII.— Wrought Iron Series, .
, Box ec. No. 5. Class No.8.
SEL a ae Me RTS NOE ATONE Coaprioe eel
? ' Gy of) FAhppom |
|
2 es » hfe Hig Rll 3
3 | Commercial character of Iron, &e. sé & EE ea bs S$ Fy 236
oe ge] e (en | Bh | ae |aeel|ges
gi He] ® |" | a" | S82 | gee) ee
e 15 {Finished bar, Forest of Dean...| F | rolled |7:6795 15
e 16 |Red short bar, Staffordshire....} F | rolled |7-6983 15
¢ 17 |Cold short bar, Burchill......... C | rolled |7-6514 16
e 18 |Common bar, Shropshire, soft; C | rolled |75870 38
e 19 |Puddled bar, Cinderford........:} TC | rolled |7-5470 27
e 20 |Common boiler plate, Banks...) CC | rolled |7-6631 57
¢21 |Best English bar, Bradley .s...., F | rolled |7-7195 35
¢ 22 |Finished Welsh bar, Doulais:..| F | rolled |7*6550 37
¢ 23 |Finished Welsh bar, Doulais ...!. F | rolled |7°5909 24 '
e¢ 24 |Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais ....) CC | rolled |7-5385 19
¢ 25 |Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais ...! CC | rolled |7-6493 21 ;
e¢ 26 |Damasked iron; Birmingham...) F |hamm¢4|7-7917 20
e 27 |Low Moor boiler plate .......... F | rolled |7°7556
¢ 28 |Faggotted scrap iron bar......... F &C |hamm¢/|7-7562
¢ 29 |Swedish iron, Dannemora......! FC | rolled |7:8204
e 30 |Bar iron of Roscoe’s steel ...... F {hamm®|7*5839
Com. Shrops. bar, case hardened| F | rolled |7-6533
Blister steel, Roscoe ....... to533 hamm4‘|7-8461
¢ 33 |Shear steel, Roscoe.......2....66: FC jhamm!|7:73895
e 34 |Cast steel in ingot, Roscoe...... C cast |7-4413
e 35 |Spring steel, soft, Bradley...... FC | rolled |7-8076
« 36 |Spring steel, tempered, Bradley; FC | rolled |7-7809
e 37 |Cast steel, hardas poss., Roscoe| FC |hamm‘/7-6798
e 88 |Cast steel, tilted, Roscoe ...... FC |hamm*|7-7983
e 39 |Zinked iron bolt ..............4 sof OF hamm?!7-5830 7-83 | 2361] 2357| 4
«40 | J Cast iron coated with wel cart cast |7-1380 | 39:21 | 20837|20899| ...
PAIN ce cecccceessecsecessees
* Weight increased by oxidation”
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 43
Boxe. No. 5. First immersion.
Wrought Iron and Steel.
=
10. ll. | 12. 13. 14,
SS i]
BS Wise ahs
ag | #24 |E¢ 3 A
e 5 tee) b-} 2 cs “ a
ca i SEs = 8 Character of Corrosion. Sa
pes | ere |s*
; I a 4 n =
1-559 |0°175 | 0: | Corrosion uniform, no fibre visible siscsccccescceeeeces SSS Be Sars Eas ede Hot
1-283 | 0:144 | 0: | Corrosion uniform, no fibre Visible .........ssccssscecseecsseteceeeeenerees Hot
1:459 | 0-164 | 0-. | Corrosion uniform, no fibre visible ..... scwssecdiices -»-|Hot
1-768 | 0:199 | 0: | Corrosion uniform, fibre indistinctly developed .. ---|Cold’
1:341 | 0:051°| 0° | Corrosion uniform, NO fibre eveloped..e..esceseeceersseccsoveeessncsssees Cold
Lamellar structure just visible at ends, sides and edges. smooth,
1500 | 0-169 0-4 , Hot
COLLOMOM WWUOLMD ..0. 0c idtsleshaceceasconccrcnssccscsesccccenensepsece
1-551 | 0-174 |0- | Corrosion uniform, fibre indistinctly developed on sides and ends. |Hot
See A i alae ey a mata nL
1 ‘ F orrosion uniform, fibre indistinctly visible
0-817 | 9°092 | 0: | Corrosion uniform, NO fibre Visible ......s.ce,.ceeccssenedsceusooeced ai
ee Shee 0: | Corrosion uniform, fibre tangled, just visible at the dude Pic edaWbawen Cold.
© 11-552 |0°175 | 0° | Corrosion uniform, no fibre visible ................ Nadloadesueaveesddvorssd Cold
1395 |0°157 |0- | Corrosion uniform, edges lamellar, sides SMOOth........eseerssseersesees Cold
0-964 | 0-108 | 0+ | Corrosion uniform, no fibre Visible .............ceceeseeccecceceescescences ;
1-179 | 0-133 | 0° | Corrosion uniform, fibre just discernible at the ends .............sss00 Cold
1 023 0-115 | 0- { per tie but slight, no fibre visible, forge scale still on in n
1-000 | 0-112 | 0: { Corrosion uniform and smooth, fibre fercioned, except on the
i ends which were SmO0th cis:cccseseesserverseecee feceevecseceeces a
0-601 | 0-067 O-4 any Raat alae no fibre wsible, except at the ends where ins 4
1-012 | 0-114 | 0- | Corrosion uniform, smooth, no fibre visible ........+..sesesscceseeseeeees y
1511 | 0-170 | 0° | Corrosion nearly uniform, crystalline structure developed i in spots. | ,,
1-035 | 0-119 | 0 { Fibre developed at the ends, sides smooth, but corroded in many
Small pits..........sceeee0 Pidencesdebicc tecdacteadodeoteneas dears ewed ers ee ”
2-248 | 0-253 | 0: | Corrosion uniform, smooth, fibre imperfectly discernible all over.s«| ,;
1-721 | 0-194 |0- | Corroded locally, but without development of fibre.........ceseeereeeee is
1:028 | 0-115 | 0: | Corrosion uniform, smooth, no fibre developed ..........seeeesee Beene fe
| Cast and Wrought Iron. First immersion.
a7 ia 577 | 0 { Corrosion slight at the ends, sides, &c. smooth and black, zinc
* brittle and readily detached, surface beneath bright. “i
«J | Paint generally still sound, but gone in blotches where corrosion [} as
we (6:0 x a5 aw]
% had taken place, zine oxidized. | hot.
:
{
“
i
a of the zinc and iron.
44. as . REPORT——1843.
f First Course
TasiE [X.—Box ¢. No.6. First Exposure, containing Specimens of Cast
Atmospheric Influences
Placed on the summit of an exposed Building of about 50 feet in height within the City of
the 21st of January, 1842;
Latitude of Dublin...... 52° 2¢-9/ N,
Longitude of Dublin... 6° 15’ W.
Altitude above mean tide level, 105 feet.
» Prevailing Winds,
Box ¢. No.6. Class No. 1,
3. A, 5. 6.
Se sie sea 1
gg Specific
aan i Hot or External How | Gravity of Dimensions
Bs} Commercial character of Iron, &c. Cold character of Cast, | Specimen of
roa) Blast. Fracture. * | g Ws, |} Specimen.
C) E w
AL
F in. in. in J
Z 1] Calder, No. 1. ....eesedeeserseesees Hot Dark gray [Green| 7:°027 |5x5xX1
22) Calder, No. 1. ........0e00 i Hot Mottled Chilled} 7:079 |5 x5 x1
Box @. No.6. Class No. 2.
5x5xl1
5x5x1
Hot
_ Hot
Mottled
Silvery
7017
7129
Green
Pentwyn, No. 2. ...scrcenerceees
Chilled
Pentwyn, No. 2.. ....escsveseseeres
Box ¢. No. 6. Class No. 3.
7-268
7-603
Mottled
Silvery
Cold
Cold
Green
Apedale, Na 2essesarsoreerone pan:
Chilled
5x5
Apedale, No. 2.,....+-+sse+ ahescle 5x5
x
x
Box Z. No. 6. Class No. 4.
7141
7:308
Green
Chilled
Cold
Cold
Dull gray
£7 |, Arigna, No. 3. ....eeeee Shebecndene
28 Mottled
Arigna, No. 3. ....+0se0es Redevsjees
Box £ No6. Class No.5.
en ns er TEEErEnnrUrEnnEn eesrnnneenennnnrner GaennneRnEnREET GEEINIEEEEEESTRSEEEEN eeeeernnnennen=nrmns’
Bo Ail aio | eee | ... | Silvery crystals |Chilled| 7624 [5 x 5x1.
z 10\13 Ca Peakarya| NOlD i ee ae Close dull gray |Green | 6978 |5 X 5 x.1]
3 Nw! h...
zu {# sey eaegal Now greaiess et Close dull gray |Green | 7:050 |5xX5 x1).
—————
Box ¢.. No. 6. Class No. 6.
£12} Doulais common bar, No. 2. ...| Hot Fibrous
ove | 7-587
53x ‘875
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 45
of Experiments.
and Wrought Iron freely exposed to air and moisture under the ordinary
at Dublin.
Dublin, and exposed on the ist day of August 1840. Removed, cleaned and weighed on
hence exposed for 539 days.
Annual Mean Temperature...... 50°24 Fahr.
Annual Mean Pressure .......++. 29°60 Inches.
Annual Mean fall of Rain ...... 27°33"...
East and West, and South-West.
Scotch Cast Iron.
Weight of | Totalloss} Loss of Loss of | Weight| Loss per
Weight of | Specimen by Weight | Weight of square inch
| Specimen after Corrosion | per square | referred to} Water | of et Character of Corrosion,
in Grains. | 539 days’ in inch of | Standard ab-
{ exposure. | 539 days. | Surface. Bar. sorbed. |. 732 ae
ir i ;
43149 | 42835 314 4-485 0-506 0- 6128 | Uniform minute:pitting |)
43939. | 43720 219 3128 0-352 0- 4:099 | Uniform minute:pitting’||
Welsh Cast Iron.
‘42289 | 41885 354 5057 | 0570 0 6-867 | Uniform minute pitting ||
43239 |. 43095 144 2-057 0:232 0° 2-793 | Deeply pitted
|
Staffordshire Cast Iron.
43735 | 43491 244 3°485 0:393 0: 4-732. | Uniform
43562 | 43541 21 0:300 0-033 0 0-407 | Local pitted :
Trish Cast Iron.
[ars 41435 | 310 | 4-428 | 0-499 | 0: | 4-428. | Uniform minute pitting
| 43465 | 43395 70 | 1300 | 0-112 | 0+ | 1-357 | Local pitted, slight ~~ |
Se
ae
| 43325 | 43181 | 144 | 2-057 | 0232 | 0+ | 2-793 | Local pitted, slight
| 42241 | 41898 | 343 | 4900 | 0552 | 0 | 6-654 | Uniform minute pitting
: / 41341 41038 303 4328 | 0-488 0: 5-877, | Uniform minute pitting
Standard Bar of Wrought Iron.
Minute pitting most at
-
anid ends, fibre visible
24018 | 256 | 5-818 | 0656 | . | 7-901
46 REPORT—1843, j
Box g. No. 6. Class No. 7,
—
.
3
ag
Scn’ Hot or External seat Dim
xtern i i i
S| Commercial character of Iron, &c. Cold Character of How Srediie fa
% “ Blast. Fracture. Cast. s= Ws, | Specimen.
ge J
in, in, i,
i a ‘
£13 te Caldery Nowt. +3 op Hot |Close bright gray| Green| 7138 |5 x 5 X°75
wyn, No. 2. + 43 Scrap...
Box ¢. No.6. Class No. 8.
1 Calder, No. 1. + } Pent-
g 14-5 ae “4 sl Geant? Hot |Close bright gray| Green| 77168 |5 x 5 x 1
I
15 {4 ei AA all Hot |Close bright gray| Green| 7168 |5 x 5x1
I
Z 16)/4 3 mg Pie te Hot (Close bright gray} Green| 77168 |5 x5 x1
3 pyle : |
Bigs Saat ae seul Hot (Close bright gray|Green|} 7168 |5 x5 x1
24
£ 18/45 neliee its i pats aon | Hot |Close bright gray] Green| 7168 |5 x5 x 1
Supplementary Table.
No. of
Experiment
ha ae Protective Paint or Varnish. State of covering after 539 days’ exposure.
Specimen.
g14 Caoutchouce varnish ........s006...eeeeee Caoutchouc not visible, surface rusty......
g 14 Best white lead paint ............se008+ Paint destroyed in various blotches ......
g 15 Gopal. varnish scssvcssadseaesaatessacsenect Varnish still, smooth and shining.........
g 15 Asphaltum varnish ........scessesseeees Varnish still, smooth and shining.........
Z 16 WMastIG VAITUBIN sccssccsturesscssecesce= ste Varnish wholly invisible and gone.........
2 16 WOEAISH tar ices ss spsctrsnssacashccasonce’ Tar still visible, but white and hydrated.
17 Three parts wax + two parts tallow| Still visible and sound, but hydrated ....
¢17 Coal-tar, laid on hot.........ssceeeeeeees Surface still black and shining, smooth...
: : ih tine hydrated and_ part!
Z 18 Turpentine varnish .........se0++ nese : paints sls, sete bi it veh :
Drying Oil .......cceccscsccscsscencaecesses Surface still black and shining ............
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 47
Gray Cast Iron. Skin removed by Planing.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14,
er
ears
Weight of | Total loss | Loss of Loss of | Weight} Loss per
_| Weight of | Specimen by Weight Weight of {square inch “
Specimen after Corrosion | per square | referred to| Water | of Surface Character of Corrosion.
in Grains. | 539 days’ in inch of | Standard ab- in
exposure. | 539 days. | Surface. Bar, sorbéd. | 732 days.
33750 | 33294 456 7015 0:791 0: 9526 | Uniform minute pitting
Gray Cast Iron, protected by Paints or Varnishes.
‘49594 | 42409 | 185 | 2642 | 0-298 | 0 | 3-588
42644 | 42620 24 | 0-342 | 0-038 | 0 | 0-464
42399 | 42349 50 | 0-714 | 0-080 | 0
42007 | 41974 33 | 0-471 | 0-053 | 0 | 0-639
42004 | 41971 36 0514 | 0-057 | 0 | 0-707
1-969
_ Box g. No. 6. Class No. 8.
Condition of surface of Specimen after 539 days’ exposure. Order of Protective Power.
| Surface uniformly corroded ..........:cseeyssssseqseeeseeeeeess|esegeeeeeees
| Corroded locally in pits, where paint gone ........-..see-[esenseeereee
Rusty spots, chiefly at the edges..........ssssccesssececseece[eonseccreees
Rusty spots, chiefly at the edges. .............ccsecceceseetee[esesceeeuees
| Surface uniformly corroded............c00..seeeeeeeeeees
| Corroded locally in spots............cccccessseeseeeseeees
No corrosion visible.............seccece0s ayes une. at Aaeeasieo les pp mee ian
A few rusty spots at the edges.........+. sae Fab edasbdcenacs|carade abate
:! Corroded locally in spots............c00 co, Le A EERBERCE pape Bere Rae ree
A few rusty spots at the edges....... BUPARAR Benes Fa ee a Senet
on FPwWNORWPOO
48 REPORT—1843.
TABLE X.—Wrought Iron
Box Z. No. 6. Class No. 9.
1 2. 3. 4 5. 6. 7. 8,
et ines | anni cede eset) ose
3 Sa Pi imp ah We Leer
ew ae ° Se n o
ag es » .| Ss | 8S | BSS
ey = % 3§ as jars
ia ' 33 Ss) 32 | $6 | Sse
a - Commercial character of Iron, &c, ee | formed. & i €3 Ss 238
se ARE) S n am We 80 Ewe
se HE = a” | S82 | see
s gs n BE | BF
en | a | | |
Finished bar, Forest of Dean......
g 19 F | rolled
¢ 20 |Red short bar, Staffordshire ...... F _| rolled
g 21 |Cold short bar, Burchill C | rolled
~ 22 |Common bar, Shropshire, soft ... C_ | rolled
¢ 23 |Puddled bar, Cinderford............ TC | rolled
¢ 24 |Common boiler plate, Banks...... CC | rolled
Z 25 |Best English bar, Bradley......... F | rolled
¢ 26 |Finished Welsh bar, Doulais...... F_ | rolled
{ 27 |Finished Welsh bar, Doulais ...... F | rolled
¢ 28 |Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais...... CC | rolled
£ 29 |Puddled Welsh bar, Doulais...... CC | rolled
Z 30 |Damasked iron, Birmingham...... F |hamm4 7-7917/ 11-
¢ 31 |Low Moor boiler plate............. F | rolled | 7-7556| 29-46
¢ 32 |Faggotted scrap iron bar............] ... F&C |hamm4 7-7562| 16-21
Z 33 |Swedish iron, Dannemora......... FC | rolled | 7-8204| 16-21
Z 34 |Bar iron of Roscoe’s steel .........] «++ F |hamm4 7-5839} 21-50
g 35 |Com. bar, Shropshire, case hard. F_ | rolled | 7-6533| 27-00
Z 36 (Blister steel, Roscoe .......0....000| eee FC |hamm4 7-8461| 12:50
Z 37 |Shear steel, Roscoe ......seceesseeee] eee FC |hamm4) 7:7395) 21:50
¢ 38 |Cast steel in ingot, Roscoe Cc cast | 7-4413] 22°50
Z 39 |Spring steel, soft, Bradley FC | rolled | 7-8076} 19°38
Z 40 |Spring steel, tempered, Bradley...| ... FC | rolled | 7-7809| 20-23
Z 41 |Cast steel, hard as poss., Roscoe | ... | FC |hamm‘) 7-6798} 21-50
& 42 |Cast steel, tilted, Roscoe .........] ... FC |hamm4 7-7983} 21:50} 7687
Box Z. No. 6. Class No. 10.
¢ 43 |Zinked iron 3-in. bolt..........+ eee F |hamm4} 7-5830) 11-85 | 2674 | 2674
Cast iron coated with zinc gray ! i
ig! yg oR eh oe } | Hot) 1 Ee | feast | 71880] 70-00 49997 43082
* Slight tarnish. + Increase of
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 49
Series. Box ¢. No. 6.
Wrought Jron and Steel.
* |14:49 | Uniform fine fret, pitted locally at one end.
612 | Uniform fine fret.
12-5. | Uniform fine fret.
9.) 10. | Il. | 12.) 18 14
Pees 12 us | £8
Oo} Meg | wos |S ,| Sa
Be| fee | Sue |23| £33
Bol. Sk lwte | Os] daa Character of Corrosion.
SE] oon | Ces }a2)/ BOR
Ss|2-¢ | 28s |3*| gos
8 me [a @/e ne
58} 8-95 | 1-009} 0: | 12-15 | Uniform minute pitting, or fine fret.
57| 9°65 | 1:088) 0: | 18-10 | Uniform fine fret.
45 | 6:96 | 0:785| 0: | 9:45 | Uniform fine fret.
333 | 15°49 | 0°748| O- | 21-03 | Nearly uniform fine fret, most at the ends.
at Par se | see | «s. | No specimen.
859 | 11-83 | 1:334| 0: | 16-06 | Uniform fine fret.
168} 10-36 | 1-168} 0+ | 14:07 | Uniform fine fret.
276|10-13 | 1-142} 0+ | 13-75 | Uniform fine fret.
77| 8-43 | 0:951| 0- | 11-44 | Nearly uniform fret, some local pitting.
60} 6-66 | 0-751} 0- | 9-11 | Nearly uniform fret, some local pitting.
88] 9-91 | 1-118] 0: | 13-45 | Uniform fine fret, fibre discernible.
118] 10-10 | 1-139} 0- | 13-71 | Uniform fine fret.
281] 9-54 | 1:076| 0- | 12:95 | Uniform very fine fret.
104} 6:37 | 0-718} 0: | 8-96 | Uniform fine fret.
219} 13:51 °| 1:749| 0- | 18-34 | Uniform coarse fret, approaching to local pitting.
256 | 11-91 | 1:343| 0: | 16-22 | Uniform very fine fret. a
-83| 3:07 | 0°346] 0- | 4-16 | Uniform fine fret. he
112} 8:96 | 1:010| 0- | 12-16 | Uniform coarse fret. ;
241) 11-21 | 1-264) 0- | 15-22 | Uniform very fine fret, the pitting mammillary.
157| 6:98 | 0:787| 0: | 9:47 | Uniform fine fret.
175| 9:03 | 1-018] 0+ | 12:26 | Uniform fine fret.
0
0:
0
Zinked Wrought and Cast Iron.
o 10 0- 0-*| Oo Surface smooth, free from rust where covered with zinc,
which has a coppery tarnish, but iron rusty where bare.
A ses j 4 0+] 0 Paint sound and good generally, but beginning to rust
|| a a +i through in blotches, and zine to oxidize.
_ weight by oxidation of zinc and iron.
1843, E
50
REPORT—1843.
TasLe XI.—Wrought Iron Standard Bar, in presence of Zine, Copper, and
their Alloys, in Sea Water.
1. 2.
Atomic Constitution
No. of Alloy.
1. Cu
2. Zn + 10Cu
3. Zn + 9Cu
4, Zun+ 8Cn
6. Zn+ 7Cu
6. Zn+ 6Cu
fs Zn+ 5Cu
8. Zn+ 4Cu
9; Zn+ 38Cu
10. Zn-+ 2Cu
11. Zn+ Cu
12. 2Zn+ Cu
13. 3Zn+ Cu
14. 4Zn+ Cu
15, 5Zn+ Cu
16. Ddigesseusentas
3.
Weight of
piece pre-
vious to
immersion.
50430
57520
549-81
559-21
528-62
553:34
492-31
503-11
466°22
493°34
488:97
480-00
424-42
433-91
414:10
420°75
4,
Weight of
piece after
immersion
for 1860
hours,
504-23
575°14
549°74
559-14
52856
55332
492-22
503°04
466-16
493°31
487-13
47984
5. 6.
Weight of
Wrought
Iron pre-
vious to
immersion.
Total
loss of
Weight.
0-07
0:06
0:07
0:07
0-06
0-02
0:09
0:07
0:06
0-03
0:04
0-16
213
2:28
317
3°51
1008-21
1008-21
100821
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
1008-21
100821
7.
Weight of
Wrought
Iron after
immersion
for 1860
hours,
9.
Loss of
Weight
loss of (Per square
. inch of
Weight.|surface in
387 days.
22°85
22°40
22°20
20°15
18°65
Taxsre XII.—Wrought Iron Standard Bar, in presence of Tin and Copper,
Atomic Constitution
of Alloy,
Cu
Sn + 10 Cu
and their Alloys, in Sea Water.
Weight of |
piece pre-
vious to
immersion.
496-21
550-00
508-01
499-72
523°80
§13-11
§54:21
516-90
471:87
526°36
476-91
4.
Weight of
piece after
immersion
for 1860
hours,
496712
549-84
507°72
499-62
523°59
51288
553°93
516-61
471-53
525°98
475°50
6.
Weight of
Total | Wrought
loss of | Iron pre-
Weight.) vious to
0-09
0-16
0:29
0-10
0-21
0-23
0-28
0-29
0:34 |
0:38
0-41
0:36 |
0-24 |
0-16
0-09
0:26
1009-30
1009°30
1009-30
1009-30
1009°30
1009°30
100930
1009°30
1009°30
1009°30
1009-30
1009°30
1009°30
1009-30
1009-30
1009°30
immersion.
1009-30
Weight of
Tron after
hours.
1004-82
100389
1003:18 |
1002-93
1002°84
1002-66
1002-46
1002-89
1004:97
1004-47
1003-62
1003-73
1004-96
1003-50
1003°17
1001-40
1007-07
22-40
27:05
30°60
31°85
32°30
33°20
34:20
32:05
21°65
24:15
28°35
27°87
21:70
29:00
30°65
39°50
1415
51
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON.
a nn ne ne eee eS nnn nnn nnn meena”
“amMsOdXxe IO WOISLOMIUUT ySIY
WIOIF SP[NSAI oe IapureMtet oY} [TV
“UOISIOWUUT PUOdas WOIT
aie ‘{[ ‘ON pue “AIsnpoUT g “oN 03
TON wor ‘9 ‘9 ‘of ‘» Jo syfnsar ou,
‘ammsodxa 4819 9Y3
TWOIZ 9.18 7 JO $}{NsoI sy JO VOY IY,
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00-0
96-¢
89¢-¢
60-21
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L186
69L-2
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GROG [eyoUI-UN-D YT 4ORJMOD UT (Aeg pavpueyg) VOIT yyYSNOI
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tee |eeeeee sousruvA pur syureg Aq payoajord ‘pazooyoad voRzang Wory 4seQ
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06:02 IL-I1 se eceeeascweresseeeceressoeses SaeneasaPaae nny saty oSvIdarv ‘uor] qqsnor Ay
SLF-G 66¢-9 ahs pe bone SNH SS Spey ape «Seamer Reta TET: 4seg pextpy ‘pues waaty ut 4seg
06-72 LL¥-6 eee ere e conse senseeaeee SBuraeyd kq poaouer Unis ‘pues itcyene3) ut 4se9
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Cge-Z C[S-9 seer eewwnewessrene seen eeenwres “*"**TOTT 4SBQ Y9909G ‘pues udeTH ut 4yseg
129-£ | 996-¢ |" "etTysIeysaonoTyH pur ‘aatysdoryg ‘earysproyeys ‘purg useryH ur yseQ
LGL-L g9c-Z Peer e rrr ere rete eee uoly 48BQ Ysiy ‘puts BicceRes) ur seg
CQz-e OFL-¢ ng vesnetse essa ee erste OO NT: 4seg TSP AA ‘pues uaaty UL 4seg
EGO | QGQL [rire treet ett eseneneennenenseseneeseneess UOIT ISB) PITT
79) p *o7p “UOI] JO WOTYBULMIOUD
“aovjang Jo your arenbs ouo uo ‘skeq GEL, Jo poriod & aoy ‘oansodxa Jo
SUOT}IPUOD oY} Jo YoRe ut ‘Uo pojyuauMtIedxe Joa}g pu UOT FYSNOIM “UOIT 4SBD JO ‘satjarteA [[e JO sso'T aSeIOAv oy} Surmoys
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REPORT—1843.
eT
L8L-6
e111
8ES-E1
LYV-6
888-8
L10-61
oé9-11
188-8
9FG-61
Lee 1
PPE-6T
€98-€1
C26-L
1F2-01
L1E-F
GPEG
AGG
09G-F
GE9-V
129-6
ISP
£06-¢
CPOE
C6G-G
[89-F
*govyang
jo your
aaenbs wad
S109UA\
[le utsso7y
‘oSR9AY
“uomtedxa JO SUOIyIPUOD aAY Jepun
069-0
698-1
AL
09€-T
616-0
690-6
618-1
19-1
[¢¢-T
L89-1
GLE-G
8L¥-1
168-0
FL0-1
£99-0
0SL-0
S1é-0
€SL-0
667-0
£F0-0
€&¢-0
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169-0
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jo
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6L-9
G0-61
G6-ST
9L-6L
G9-8
PE-8L
90-91
G6-61
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L0-F1
£0-16
OL-EL
106-2
925-6
LL3-G
F999
£616
LGE-1
SEPP
LO¥-0
CELT
£616
£98-9
660-¥
861-9
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jo ztun
aad sso’'y
TéL-1
£60-1
610-1
109-0
¥96-0
6LL-1
008-1
G6E-T
968-1
1g¢-1
894-1
€86-1
1¥0-6
69T-T
126:0
008-0
866-0
L56-0
16-1
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PLO-T
680-1
$84-0
PILL
866-1
‘oouyIng
jo qrun
rad ssory
G96-L | Ge
6.1 | 8-01
OGF-T | 16-81
100-{ | 48-8
6F6-1 | 86-LT
818-0 | 6L-2
OPF-L | G8-6L
PELL | £66
Te-L | 68-11
OOL-1 | L0-ST
99¢-6 | GL-26
890-6 | €&-81
GE9-0 | 899-9
918-0 | 69L-£
LLG-0 | LSV-G
L9E-0 | L96-8
G8E-0 | 869-6
128-0 | £98:
8EE-0 | 000-€
FIG-0 | 006-1
EPE-0 | 006-6
EPE-0 | GORE
196-0 | 866-6
LI¥-0 | 00L-€
FOF-0 | S8S-E
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jo Jo 7tun
xapuy dod ssory
¥8-91
L8-16
9-96
G9-9T
6L-F1
86:86
89-16
9L-S1
L846
09-91
£6-91
90-96
O€F-61
OGS-FG
128-9
¢80-T1
86V-E
G86-9
LGL-L
[86-0
1L9-4
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G86-€
G86-01
686-L
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ttreereeeeeeresesoseeses DIB ‘PITT “19948 4SBD
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Bushs tees isexseSdoisiess se yiy ‘1eq 19098 19ast[q
seeseeeeeeeesscceeeeecoeses THC. desos poqj033e,,
“**eomoUNecy “1eq YsIpeMg
PTeerr rr Te Terre! syueg ‘ogotd AaTtoq uomuoy)
Peete eeeeraeteeneeeeeeee ayeyd TaTIOq LOO. MO'T
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steeeeeeeeeeeerees BG DABPULIS UOAT qysnor\y
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seereeez cont ‘udmguag ¥ + TON ‘op[eg %
Pteeceeeceseesesos Nori ‘atquanooid ysopaeyy
tereseees NOTTTYD ‘pjoo ‘eusiy
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sas enaeecesesavedessesee eer oY ‘ajepody
sea eeesencersccceeccvonseaeverereees AOU ‘ajepody
or tetreeeeereseees NOTTUD “OU WAMIUI
steneseceusarneesscereceeanesssereee ur ULMIUWI
PTETECTEPPE ee! parry ‘oy ‘rop[eg
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Zuroq ‘skep BEL Jo pottad uowmos v 0} poonpat [[e “ory, Your vu Jo uoay FYSNOAAA pur ysvQ jo suauttoadg snolea uo
‘JayVA\ PUL ALY JO UOTJW oy} Jo synset Surpooosd jo uostwedwioo [etouaryy— ATX TIAV],
53
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON.
a ee > 1 > Ae ea oe, nia i aie in aa ial aia aaa A as aa |
£F0:0 OL | FE8-LFG
960-0 CO-1 | G1é-Z¥1
60-0 FO-L | 86L-SFT
¢10-0 19-0 | 7FS-98
F600 £60 | 999-981
0£0-0 1@-T | 9£2-691
8&0-0 FEL | 000-912
9ST-0 86-9 82-188
646-0 GEIL | 02-SEL1
686-0 G9-ST | 89-1616
10¢-0 | OL-ZI | FOTSLT
6160 €£8 09-S761
OLF-0 é8:81 | 96-0796
G1¥-0 SF-9L | F9-G1EG
&EE-0 6G-EL | 08-F98T1
€96-0 ILF1 | 00-0861
198-0 FF-FL | 80-9606
0FS-0 69:16 | GE-8Z0€
cee-0 IV-E1 | OF-9881
20> on a
Bgos | 889 | Bae
Soe | Bee | Eas
Eso Ee. offs ee)
Reese | Fee | 2509
28 ga ee aro
io whinge QD ® =| Ban @
Som | She 382
is} oo
"Eee | Ses | 855
saya ur
TILIA OY} 0} posodxT
c£0-0 EFT | 088-002
620-0 EFL | PZ0-10G
620-0 6E-L | FPE-823
180-0 FEE | 6S-FSS
20-0 1E-1 | Z&L-F81
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gice | 289 | BS:
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Bagh | os laste
seen | ee | aoe
mene | Sea |° Fag
Scho | 2o8 ng &
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O&F-0 SEL | 96-FEFS
699-0 FFG | 8G-671E
949-0 SL-LG | FG-O18E
CGP-0 60-41 | 09-2686
616-0 SI-SI | 92-9616
921-0 G0-66 | G8-6L0F
Fos-0 CL-26 | SS-LO1€E
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54 REPORT—1843.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jonn Herscuen, the
Masrer or Trinity Coutuece, Cambridge, the Dean or Exy,
Dr. Luoyp, and Colonel SABINE, appointed to conduct the co-ope-
ration of the British Association in the system of Simultaneous
Magnetical and Meteorological Observations.
In this their Fifth Report on the momentous subject entrusted to them, your
Committee propose to follow the arrangement of the matter under the several
heads adopted in their report of last year, and in nearly the same order, as
on the whole most convenient and perspicuous.
1. Antarctic Expedition.
The Committee congratulate the Association on the approaching return of
this expedition, having accomplished in the fullest degree all the objects of
its mission. Three seasons in which they have forced their way at different
points far within the higher latitudes of the southern hemisphere, have fur-
nished a magnetic survey of these regions equalling, or rather surpassing,
both in completeness and accuracy, all those sanguine expectations which led
the Association to urge on the Government the prosecution of this great en-
terprise. Though not marked by geographical discoveries of equal splendour
with those which signalised their first campaign in the Antartic Circle, and
which we had the gratification of noticing in our last report, the two suc-
ceeding seasons have each produced an equally rich harvest of magnetic
results.
The observations as they have reached England have been committed for
publication (as noticed in our last report) to the superintendence of Colonel
Sabine, and under the form and in continuation of a series of “‘ Contributions
to Terrestrial Magnetism,” are in process of communication by him to the
Royal Society, and of publication by that learned body in their Transactions.
In our last report we gave some account of a communication of this descrip-
tion, in which the observations made between England and Kerguelen’s
Island are published and discussed. The 5th of these series (which is now
in progress of printing) contains, comprised in about sixty pages of tables,
the observations within the Antarctic Circle, made in the summer of 1840-41,
on board of both the ships, as also those on board of the Erebus, between
Kerguelen’s Island and Van Diemen’s Land. In this paper the important
subject of the corrections due to the iron of the ships is fully considered,
and by the aid of formule furnished by Mr. Archibald Smith of Trinity
College, Cambridge, and founded on the theory of M. Poisson, delivered in
his Memoir of 1838, “ Sur les déviations de la Boussole produites par le fer
des Vaisseaux,” the constant coefficients of these corrections for each ship
are investigated. These coefficients are four in number for each ship, falling
naturally into two pairs, the one depending on a series of compass azimuths
observed and compared with the true azimuths round a whole revolution of
the ship’s head at a fixed station ; the other on a series of inclinations or dips
observed in the same situations of the ship, and compared inéer se. Obser-
vations for this express and most important purpose were made (in confor-
mity with the general instructions) at several stations, viz. at Chatham, be-
fore the departure of the expedition, at Hobart Town (Van Diemen’s Land),
and at Auckland Island. From these Colonel Sabine has obtained three sets
of values of the former pair, and two of the latter, and the results thus pro-
cured (by no trifling amount of calculation) are found to agree admirably ;
thus affording ground for the fullest confidence in the corrections depending
on them, as well as in the theory from which they are derived, and in the general
bet. Detach .- i ow
=
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 55
approximation to truth of the hypotheses necessarily made as to the distribu
tion of the iron in the vessels. In the case of one of these coefficients an
opportunity was afforded of testing its value by a series of observations made
in a high south latitude, by employing a different formula involving the true
dip, as actually observed on the ice at the moment; and the result proved in
perfect accordance with the mean of those deduced by the other method.
There is one other constant, which affects the intensity, entering as a general
multiplier for the reduction of the observed to the true intensity. The value
of this for the Erebus is obtained by Colonel Sabine from a series of obser-
vations made at Hobart Town with Mr. Fox’s intensity apparatus, similarly
instituted throughout a complete revolution of the ship’s head; the partial
results of which, grouped by pairs, and checked by the use of observed in
place of computed values of the disturbed inclination, offer an agreement
highly satisfactory.
The above statement applies to the Erebus. For the Terror the first pair
only of constants (those depending on the azimuths) are deduced; from
observations at Chatham and Hobart Town, the constants for correction of the
dip and intensity could not be obtained, the requisite observations not
having yet reached England.
Besides these there are a variety of index corrections and other elements
for the observations of inclination and intensity, which having been com-
puted and duly applied, the tabulated results have been projected by Colonel
Sabine in three charts (copies of which accompany this report), exhibiting
both the individual results, and the approximate course of the isogonic
and isoclinal lines deduced from them, an inspection of which gives room for
several interesting remarks.
1. As great and greater discordances are to be looked for, and must fre-
quently be experienced in magnetic surveys conducted on land, than in those
at sea. In effect, the chief and worst cases of discordance occur in observa-
tions made on the islands at which the expedition touched.
2. The general form of the curves of higher inclination in the southern
hemisphere is much more analogous to that in the northern than appears in
M. Gauss’s maps.
8. Captain Ross’s observations of intensity lead also to the conclusion of
a much closer analogy between the two hemispheres than M. Gauss’s maps
would appear to indicate. No higher intensity than 2:1 has been any where
observed.
4. In examining the observations of declination, particularly those which
point out the course of the lines of 0° and 10° east, a more westerly position
is indicated than that assigned by M. Gauss for the spot in which all the
lines of declination unite.
It cannot be indifferent to the British Association to learn, that first, by
the blessing of Providence, and next by the watchful care and the expe-~
rienced judgment of the Commander of the Expedition, all those results have
been obtained without any of those drawbacks to which, from the duration
and peculiar hazards of the voyage, it might perhaps have been deemed un-
usually liable. Captain Ross closes his last dispatch to the Admiralty, dated
from the Cape of Good Hope in April 1843, with the following remarkable
sentence :—“ It affords me the highest gratification for a third time, to report
that our ships have sustained no material damage ; that we have not been
visited by casualty or sickness, and that there is not an individual in either
ship in the Sick Report.”
56 REPORT—1843.
2. British and Foreign Observatories— Publications of Magnetic Observations
and Memoirs, &e. relating to Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology.
The government of the United States have appropriated funds for the esta-
blishment of a magnetic observatory at Washington under the direction of
Lieut. Gillies of the United States Navy. This gentleman has lately visited
Europe for the purpose of obtaining instruments for this observatory, as well
as for a national astronomical observatory, which is also placed under his di-
rection.
The United States government has also appropriated funds for the support
during three additional years of the Magnetic Observatory at Philadelphia,
under the direction of our zealous and accomplished Corresponding Member
Professor Bache.
In consequence of an application made by the President and Council of the
Royal Society, through the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, to the
Bavarian government, the Magnetic Observatory at Munich, which under
Dr. Lamont has rendered such good service to the magnetic cause, has been
continued for three additional years. The results of the first three years,
1840, 1841 and 1842, have been published in a memoir in the Bavarian
Academy of Sciences, which has been translated in the 12th Part of
Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs.
A second volume of the magnetic and meteorological observations made
at the Prague Observatory has been published by M. Kreil, containing the
regular observations for August 1840 to July 1841, and the disturbance ob-
servations from September 1839 to Nov. 1840.
The publication of the regular observations made at the Magnetic Obser-
vatory at Christiania, under the direction of the veteran and indefatigable
Professor Hansteen, are preparing for publication at the expense of the Nor-
wegian government. They consist of an unparalleled series with the unifilar
magnetometer, observed at every ten minutes night and day, from November
1841 to the end of June 1843: accompanied by observations of the bifilar at
eyery second hour from June to December 1842, and since that period hourly.
M. Gauss has published in the last volume of the ‘ Resultate’ a laborious
analysis of the observations made with the inclinometer, and an examination
of all the sources from whence error may introduce itself into the results.
This memoir, which is calculated to be of much practical use, has been trans-
lated in the 12th Part of Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs. The testimony which
M. Gauss bears to the excellence of the inclinometer made by the late Mr. Ro-
binson, must be very grateful to the friends of that much-regretted artist.
The publication of the observations at the British colonial stations still
awaits the exact determination of the temperature coefficients, for which
object an auxiliary appayatus has been sent to each observatory. The first
part of the volume of the disturbance observations has been completed,
comprising those made in 1840, 1841. The reasons for separating these
observations from the general series, and commencing the publication of
the results obtained at the magnetic observatories with them, have been
assigned in our last report. Colonel Sabine has prefaced this volume with
a synoptic statement of the general conclusions which it has been found
practicable to deduce from the observations in their actual uncorrected state
(the temperature corrections being for the most part, and the scale-coefti-
cients, in certain of the series still wanting *), some of the more important of
which it will be proper here to mention.
* The reasons for printing these especial observations in the absence of these essential
elements for their correction, will be found in the preface alluded to. It was not resolved
on without full consideration.
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 57
The object of this publication being to present in their most salient point
of view the irregular movements of the needle and variations of the magnetic
force, it is necessary in the first instance to ascertain and subduct from the
observed changes everything of a regular periodical nature which the actual
amount of our present knowledge has enabled us to ascertain. This has been
accordingly done, so far as Toronto and Van Diemen’s Land are concerned,
both for the diurnal, monthly, and annual fluctuations of the magnetic ele-
ments as far as it has been practicable yet to deduce them, and the results
have afforded room for preliminary conclusions of no small interest, which
have been stated by Colonel Sabine in his preface, and of which the follow-
ing is a brief outline.
At Toronto the regular diurnal movement in declination does not consist
in a simple uninterrupted progress and regress of the needle. Commencing
from 2" p.m. its movement is continuous to the eastward till 10 P.., it then
returns westward (through a comparatively small angle) until 2? a.m., when
its eastward movement is resumed and continued till 85 a.m., after which its
return is continuous to the west until 2" p.a. This second eastward pro-
gression is more decided in summer than in winter, and the total range
of diurnal fluctuation is also more considerable.
At Van Diemen’s Land (a station it is to be borne in mind almost
antipodal to Toronto), the course of the diurnal oscillation corresponds with
that above stated in all but one essential feature, viz. that the hours (in
mean time at the station) of easterly movement of the north end of the bar
at the one station are those of its westerly movement at the other, that the
diurnal range being nearly the same in both, with a similar inequality in its
summer and winter amount; a similar alternate progression and recess also
prevails, and at the same hours.
These are certainly very remarkable features, showing a regular connexion
between two stations so remote, carried out into what may be regarded
as minute particulars. Falling in however with the generally received im-
pression of the universality of the causes (whatever they may be) which pro-
duce the periodical fluctuations of the magnetic elements, they can only be
regarded as contributions to our knowledge of details. It is otherwise with
the results deduced by a comparison with each other of the observations
recorded in this volume, not only at these two stations but also at St. Helena,
and with those made by M. Kreil at Prague, as respects cases of unusual
magnetic disturbance which occur (so far as we can yet perceive) casually,
or at least non-periodically. Such comparison has enabled us at length,
unequivocally, to state it as a general proposition, that the whole magnetic
system of our globe is affected in the majority of cases of great disturbance.
- For it is found that if a list of days of great disturbance, independently noticed
as such, and marked by extra observations on each station, be made out,
these lists will be found to coincide in at least a majority of days, and more
especially on those days when the recorded disturbances have been greatest.
Of twenty-nine principal disturbances recorded in Colonel Sabine’s Synoptic
Table, some confined to a single day, others running through two or three
‘successive days, and comprehending altogether forty-nine days, by far the
greater part are shown to have manifested themselves at Toronto, Van Diemen’s
Land, and Prague, and fifteen are marked by extra observations at St. Helena.
_ But though it is thus rendered certain that the whole globe is affected in
many and great “magnetic storms,” it is equally shown that the minute iden-
tity of particular shocks, which seemed to result from the earlier observations
of this nature in Europe, cannot be maintained (as a general proposition) as
traceable on anything like so extensive a scale.
58 REPORT—1843.
Not the least interesting part of this volume consists in the notices at To-
ronto of auroral phenomena accompanying the extraordinary magnetic dis-
turbanees. They are many and remarkable, and can hardly fail to throw
great light on this branch of the general subject.
This is not the proper place for theory, nor is anything more than an ana-
logical illustration intended, if we compare the affections in question to what
might be supposed to occur if we conceived the earth surrounded, besides the
ocean and the air, with an electric atmosphere of excessive elasticity and mo-
bility, in which were propagated from origins unknown to us, undulatory
movements of every order, from the most minute local oscillations to waves
affecting (almost in an instant, or in very short intervals of time, but varying
in depth and amplitude with the geographical coordinates) its whole extent.
Could such electric waves* be conceived as affecting the magnet, we might,
form some idea of the mode in which particular shocks thin off as it were by
distance of place, and are replaced by others of different local origin.
The difficult subject of the determination of the earth’s magnetic force in
absolute measure has been subjected to a further investigation by Dr. Lloyd.
The difficulty, which is of a practical rather than a theoretical nature, arises
from this, that the expression for the tangent of the angle of deflection of one
magnet by another being expressed approximately by two terms of a series
according to descending powers of their mutual distance, viz. the inverse cube
and fifth power, with unknown coefficients, these have to be determined in
Gauss’s method by observations of deflection at two different distances, and
by eliminations, in which process serious errors are introduced in the result
by small errors in the observations. The object of Dr. Lloyd's present paper
is to point out a means by which the quantity sought may be obtained with-
out elimination, by observations at one distance only, thus diminishing both
the trouble of the observation and increasing the accuracy of the result. This
method depends on the assumption of an empirical law in the distribution of
free magnetism in a magnetised bar inferred by Biot from Coulomb’s re-
searches, in virtue of which a simple ratio, dependent only on the lengths of
the two magnets, subsists between the coefficients of the inverse powers above
mentioned,—a ratio such, that on a certain simple assumption of the propor-
tional lengths, the term depending on the inverse fifth power may be made
to vanish ipso facto, and thereby get rid of the whole difficulty. Dr. Lloyd
adduces several experiments confirmatory of these results.
The ‘Annalen fur Meteorologie, Erdmagnetismus und verwandte Gegen-
stiinde,’ published by M. Lamont with the assistance of Messrs. Griinert,
Koller, Kreil, Lamont, Pleiniger, Quetelet, and Stieffel, for the year 1842, is
completed, and will be followed up by similar series in quarterly parts. In
this collection are contained a multitude of important contributions to these
subjects from all quarters, and more particularly magnetic observations from
Munich by M. Lamont; and meteorological registers from Marseilles by M.
Benjamin Valz, from Schlésse by M. Bayer, from Dorpat by M. Madler, from
various stations in Labrador and Greenland, from Utrecht by M. Van Rees,
from Munich by M. Leonhardt, and a series of comparative observations from
Stuttgard, Giessen, Carlsruhe, Vienna, and Parma, in which the barometric
and thermometric observations are not stated absolutely, but only their dif-
* It is by no means necessary in this way of conceiving the subject, to assume an atmo-
sphere of pure electricity (of which we can form no conception). But we may, for hypo-
thesis sake, admit the existence of an atmosphere of some medium very much more rare and
elastic than air, by whose compressions and dilatations electricity may be momentarily deve-
loped and absorbed, as caloric is by those of air in the phenomena of sound, manifesting
itself by its action on the magnet, and' possibly by auroral pulsations also, of which latter
phenomenon it seems excessively difficult to give any other account.—(H.)
Cs
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py ee ee
a
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 59
ferences from Munich, an arrangement of which it is not very easy to per-
ceive the advantage. ‘The volume in question contains also an investigation
by Dr. Lamont of the law of distribution of magnetism in magnetised bars,
in which various methods of determining by observation the coefficients of
an empirical series representing the intensity of free magnetism in ascending
powers of the distance of a point from the centre of the magnet are proposed.
By a communication from M. Boguslawski it appears that in spite of great
difficulties arising from want of regular assistants the observations at Prague
have been regularly continued, not only on all the term days, but, since Ja-
nuary Ist of the current year, also daily at four hours in each day with all the
three instruments. Perceptible magnetic disturbances have been noticed by
him on January 1, October 6, February 24, March 29 (very great), April 5,
May 15, and July 24.
3. Magnetic Surveys.
At the request of the East India Company the magnetic observatories of
Simla and Singapore have been supplied with a portable magnetic apparatus,
which we hope will be speedily and extensively employed in magnetic surveys
having the respective observatories as central points.
M. Kreil is about to add to his most useful observatory labours a magnetic
survey of Bohemia, for which he has obtained portable apparatus on the con-
struction proposed by Dr. Lamont.
4, North American Survey.
Letters have been received from Lieut. Lefroy dated from Lachine on the
28th of April, and from Sault S** Marie, May 20th of the current year, giving
an interesting account of his progress so far on his arduous expedition, and
detailing his plan of operations, for this and the next year with a sample of
each day's performance. Lieut. Lefroy reached Montreal on the 22nd of
April, where also his instruments arrived on the 25th (not altogether without
injury to the force of his magnets from the extreme badness of the roads),
Here, on consultation with Sir G. Simpson, he found it advisable to recast
the plan of his route and to resolve on proceeding first to York Fort, and re-
turning thence to Norway House, ascend. the Sascatchewan to Edmonton,
which he expects to reach on the 20th of September, whence, crossing the
Uniga to descend it on the ice to the Slave Lake and return to Athabasca for
the remainder of the winter, working his way back to Canada in the next
season and taking Moose Fort on the way back. By the adoption of this
route a more complete circuit of the focus of maximum intensity will be
accomplished than by that originally contemplated. Every necessary order
and instruction and every facility he states to have been most readily ac-
corded, and in particular a circular to have been issued to all the officers of
the Hudson’s Bay Company, amounting to a carte blanche, commanding all
the resources of the Company. The line of no variation Lieut. Lefroy states
to have been crossed between La Cloche and Sault S$‘ Marie, up to which
point little change of dip had been experienced, his course leading him nearly
along the isoclinal line of 77°.
5. Naval Observatories.
The second series of Sir Edward Belcher’s magnetic determinations at
thirty-two stations, principally at ports in the Pacific Ocean and in the Indian
and Chinese Seas, have been reduced by Lieut.-Colonel Sabine and printed
in the 2nd Part of the Phil. Trans, for the present year. The two series of
Sir Edward Belcher’s observations, which are now printed in the Phil. Trans.,
contain determinations of the three magnetic elements at sixty-one stations
60 REPORT—1843.
widely distributed over the surface of the globe; and that indefatigable officer
has again sailed for the coast of China and the Pacific, furnished with an
improved magnetic equipment, including the portable magnetometer appa-
ratus and a Fox’s inclinometer and intensity instrument for observations at
sea.
The observations from Captain Blackwood’s expedition have begun to
arrive, both those with Mr. Fox’s instrument at sea and with the portable ap-
paratus on occasions on shore. The observations of this expedition promise
to be of great value, from the zeal and intelligence which those already re-
ceived evince on the part of Lieut. Shadwell and Mr. Evans, under whose
particular direction this branch of the public service has been placed by
Captain Blackwood.
No expense whatever has been incurred in the present year, but your Com-
mittee pray the continuance of the grant made to them at the last meeting to
meet such demands as may arise.
Signed on the part of the Committee, J. F. W. HerscHet.
Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteorological
Observations. By Sir J. F. W. Herscuen, Bart.
Every exertion having been used to complete the series of equinoxial and
solstitial observations during the years 1835, 1836, 1837, 1838, whether by
writing to parties who have communicated observations, for duplicates of
missing series, or by searching the records of observatories, meteorological
registers, scientific journals and periodicals, these endeavours have proved so
far successful, that at length 334 sets of observations have been collected,
made at sixty-nine distinct stations. A synoptic statement of these, with the
geographical elements of the stations, the names of the observers or commu-
nicators of the observations, and other particulars as far as they could be col-
lected, or are necessary for our present purpose, is annexed to this report.
See Appendix (A.). ‘
It will be at once seen on inspection of this synopsis, that although at a
few stations (as London, Greenwich, Brussels, Port Louis, Markree, Cadiz)
consecutive series, extending over a period of three complete years, have been
procured (within the limit assigned to these reductions), yet that this is not
the rule but the exception; and that, taken altogether, the observations form
anything rather than a connected whole. Under these circumstances, the
only point of view which seemed to promise any distinct and definite results,
bearing reference to causes prevailing over extensive regions, was that of the
barometric fluctuations, considered with a view to the propagation of atmo-
spheric waves, which, it is manifest, can only be traced over any considerable
tract of country by this method of inquiry. It is accordingly to these, and
to these only, that my attention has been directed ; using the observed tem-
perature (where the original observations have not been corrected by the
observers) merely as elements of reduction, and referring to the registered
state of wind and weather, whenever such reference has been considered
elucidatory of any point suggested by the main branch of the inquiry.
If we consider the trifling depth of the ponderable atmosphere regarded as
an envelope of the whole globe, the interruption and obstacles offered to its
oscillatory movements as a whole by the configuration of the continents and
the distribution of mountain chains, but above all, by the vast and capricious
variety of local causes affecting the temperatures of particular districts, and
pe a ee ee
PY PaaS sist
cee ee ae
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 61
thereby causing partial ascensional and descensional movements and local
generations and precipitations of vapour, we shall clearly perceive that, so far
as our present purpose is concerned, the particular dimensions and form of
our planet have little to do with our inquiry, and that for the immediate pur-
poses of that inquiry we may regard our globe as a plane surface of infinite
extent, over particular districts of which systems of oscillation of local origin,
and independent of each other, are in progress, and in which we may regard
ourselves fortunate if we can now and then succeed in obtaining distinct
evidence of the direction, extent, height and velocity of a single wave. The
distribution of our stations into groups, grounded on this view of the subject,
and the mode of referring the observations of each group to a central station
within it, have been described in my report for 1840, and need not therefore
here be recapitulated. These groups, it is true, abstractedly considered, are
far from those which would be chosen @ priori. For example, Mauritius
and Van Diemen’s Land are but ill adapted to form a group with Indian sta-
tions. But for this there is no remedy, and the Mauritius observations (of
which, owing to the diligence and zeal of Captain Lloyd, Surveyor-General
of that island, we possess a nearly complete series) merit and will receive a
separate discussion.
Two objects have been chiefly kept in view in the present inquiry. First,
the tracing, where it can be accomplished, the course of one particular wave
over the whole area embraced within one of our groups; and secondly,
where this cannot be done, the observation of connexions between particular
localities with a view to the subdivision of the total area into barometric dis-
tricts, in which the atmospheric fluctuations shall be, generally speaking,
similar in their phases. With these objects the projection of the barometric
curves, for all the stations of a group, one sheet for each separate term, has
been executed with great care and delicacy by Mr. Birt, and on a scale so
large as to allow of the minutest corresponding changes, if any, to be
distinctly followed out. The number of sheets so projected is fifty-three, on
a scale of an inch to the hour in time, and one inch to 0-066 of barometric
altitude ; and I must not lose this opportunity of acknowledging many valua-
ble remarks received from that gentleman on the subject of particular cases
of much interest, which will be given in his own words, under their several
heads as they occur.
I proceed now, therefore, to the discussion of the observations of each
term, so reduced and projected, seriatim.
As the whole of the curves of the American group, and seventeen others
of the European series, together with their tabulated reductions, have been
on a former occasion submitted to the inspection of the meeting, to the num-
ber of 105, it has not been thought necessary to risk the loss or damage of
the remainder by transmitting them herewith, they being in all respects
similar.
European Group.
June 1835.—This term affords only two series, those of London and Brus-
sels. The projected curves exhibit a pretty regular descent, and tolerably
well-maintained parallelism during the first sixteen projected hours, or until
3 a.m. of the 22nd, when the Brussels curve attains a minimum, and pretty
abruptly ascends again to the end of the series. The London curve, on the
other hand, continues to descend till 11 a.m. of the 22nd, where it also attains
a minimum, and begins to reascend. If this minimum represent, as it pro-
bably does, the trough of a barometric wave which’ at 3 a.m. was verti-
cally over Brussels, and at 11 a.m. over London, the wave must have been
62 REPORT—1843.
travelling westwards, but the direction of its length, and therefore that of
its advance, remaining undetermined for want of other stations, its velocity
must also remain so, only that it must have equalled or exceeded 125 miles
per hour.
The effect of diurnal oscillation is evident in both these curves, but most
so in the London one, by a relative minimum occurring at 4 P.M., and a rela-
tive maximum at 10 P.M. The morning minimum is also perceptible enough
in the London curve, but the corresponding maximum cannot be traced in
either.
September 1835.—Markree, London and Greenwich, Brussels, Geneva.
Diurnal oscillation.—In all the curves the afternoon and nightly minimum
and maximum are perfectly distinct, and indeed finely developed. The morn-
ing and forenoon ones less so, except in the Geneva curve, where the fore-
noon maximum is very evident.
When these are abstracted and slight irregularities rounded off, the London
and Greenwich curves exhibit a very steady fall during the whole series,
amounting to 0°38 in. in twenty-six hours, and being perceptibly accelerated
towards the end of the series. The same holds good for Brussels and Geneva,
but at these stations the total fall is much less, viz. 0:11 in. for Brussels, and
0:07 in. for Geneva. On the other hand, at Markree, the descent, which from
noon till midnight of the 21st had been gentle (amounting to 0:08 in.), begins
then to accelerate, and terminates the curve with a bold and decided down-
ward sweep, traversing no less than 0°59 in. in the subsequent thirteen hours.
On referring to the observations of wind and weather on this occasion, this
fall of the barometer appears to have been the precursor of a pretty stiff gale,
which was also felt in London, from the south-west.
December 1835.—Markree, London, Brussels, Geneva, Gibraltar.
Diurnal oscillation —Very conspicuous in every one of the curves, both the
maxima and minima being unequivocally and strongly marked. When the
effect of these is allowed for and abstracted, all the stations exhibit a steady,
uniform, and (with exception of Markree, where it was somewhat slower) an
equally rapid rise in the barometer during the whole extent of the projected
series. Considering the season of the year and the extent of surface embraced,
this must be allowed to be not a little remarkable. To take in an effect of
this nature, we must enlarge our conception of an atmospheric wave till it
approaches in some degree, in the extent of its sweep, and the majestic regu-
larity of its progress, to those of the tide-waves in the ocean. The total ele-
vation or barometric height of the portion of this wave within the limits of
observation, amounted to about 0°22 in. on an average of the several stations,
exclusive of Markree, where it did not exceed 0°16.
March 1836.—Markree, Limerick, Blackheath, Greenwich, London, Brus-
sels, Maestricht, Geneva, Cadiz, Gibraltar, Tangier.
The effects of the regular diurnal oscillation are very distinct throughout
the series for London and its environs, Brussels and Maestricht. The fore-
noon maximum on the 22nd is also very conspicuous at Geneva, but the
morning minimum there is marked in its influence on the course of the curve
by a very curious feature, of which more presently. In Markree, Limerick,
and the south European stations, the diurnal oscillations are not traceable,
or but indistinctly. Abstraction made of these oscillations, the English and
Belgian curves agree in indicating a downward movement throughout the
series, at the rate (nearly uniform) of about 0°14 in twenty-four hours. In
this movement Geneva also agrees, with exception of one interruption arising
from the singular feature above alluded to. But the Irish curves separate
themselyes in the most decided manner from this law of progress, and ap-
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 63
pear to have been under the influence of some cross wave, or local cause of
disturbance not extending to any of the other stations. These curves both
commence with a falling barometer, but a minimum is attained about 6 P.M.
of the 25th (6"), after which they rise rapidly, and continue to do so; in the
case of Markree to the end of the projected series ; in that of Limerick, nearly
so, a maximum being apparently reached about the 25th hour (1 p.m. of the
22nd).
io curves for Cadiz, Gibraltar and Tangier, are all marked (and more
especially the two latter) with that peculiarity which has already been no-
ticed in the Geneva curve, and which consists in a sudden and temporary
elevation and depression, forming a kind of hump or abrupt bulge upwards.
At Geneva and Gibraltar this occupies the interval from the 11th to the 15th
hour (11 p.m. tc 34.m.). At Tangier it is two hours earlier, viz. from 9»
to 13, but in all three cases equally pronounced, and of about the same
elevation, 0°033 in.; not a very large quantity, it is true, but quite unequivocal,
and beyond all reasonable limits of error of observation. At Cadiz it also
oceurs, but less distinct and less abrupt, running into the swell caused by the
nocturnal maximum of the regular oscillation, as is also in some degree the
case at Geneva, and of which maximum it is probably some abnormal affec-
tion, rather depending on the general state of the atmosphere as affecting ra-
diation (of which I shall have more to say presently), than the effect of any
wave-like disturbance striking on the stations at the times in question. The
winds and weather noted at the stations afford no elucidation of this curious
peculiarity.
June 1836.—Markree, Limerick, Oxford, London (with Greenwich and
Blackheath), Brussels, Hanover, Geneva, Turin, Cadiz, Gibraltar.
This term exhibits a considerable want of accordance between the British
and continental stations. To begin with the latter. The diurnal oscillations
are well marked at Brussels, Geneva and Turin, both the minima and both
maxima being clearly exhibited. When these are abstracted the curves be-
come nearly level, a slight tendency to descend only remaining for Brussels
and Geneva, and to ascent for Turin. At Cadiz and Gibraltar also, the
afternoon minimum and nocturnal maximum are clearly expressed, and being
eliminated, the curves up to about the 14th hour at Cadiz, and the 17th at
Gibraltar, assume the flattened and slightly-descending character of those
belonging to Brussels and Geneva. But at these hours respectively a re-
markable change comes on which completely masks the oscillatory move-
ments. In fact, a bulge upwards rather than a depression takes place in the
Cadiz curve between the 14th and 18th hours, and a sudden abrupt upward
start (of 0°03 in.) in that of Gibraltar at the 18th, which as it were dislocates
it, and places all the rest of its course on a higher level. In speculating on
the origin of these peculiarities, I have been led to consider them as probably
due to the immense radiation of the African continent, with its cloudless
skies, chilling and contracting the superincumbent atmosphere, and giving
rise to a nocturnal influx from all quarters, but chiefly from the adjacent
ocean. Such an influx, suddenly checked and reversed in its direction by
the approach of the sun to the eastern horizon, would evidently tend to pro-
duce phzenomena of the kind.
The curve for Hanover of this term deviates totally from the type of those
described, offering a regular and considerable rise and fall, in which the
effect of the diurnal oscillations is completely merged. The maximum of the
series occurs at or about 16", the total rise from the lowest point being
0°22 in., and that of its subsequent depression to what appears to be a mini-
mum, at the end of the series, of 0°13 in. These features tend to separate
64 / REPORT—1843.
Hanover from the other European stations and to connect it with the British
group, though under considerable modifications.
At all the British stations the effect of diurnal oscillation is completely
merged in, and even for the most part contradicted by, the course of casual
fluctuation. On the subject of these curves, as connected with each other,
and with those belonging to the continental stations, Mr. Birt has furnished
some instructive and elaborate remarks, to which it would be doing injustice
not to state them in his own words.
“ British Isles and Europe. June 1836.
“(B.) These sheets exhibit a beautiful and interesting instance of the trans-
ference of the atmospheric affections from the west of Ireland across England
to Brussels.
“(B.) By taking the whole of the observations at Markree and Limerick,
the curves obtained at these stations may be divided into three portions. The
first exhibit a gradual descent of the barometer at both stations: this descent
was observed during seven hours at Markree, and at Limerick during six; at
Markree, the northern station, it was greater than at Limerick: the extents
are as under.
Markree. © se s)1s0's 7096
Limerick + 2. » «+ °060
The vertices of these curves were not observed at either station, consequently
the whole amounts of oscillation are not given, but as the descents terminate
nearly at the same time, the oscillations are comparable.
“(B.) The second portions of these curves are distinguished by their flat-
ness, and also, especially at Markree, by two complete, though small, undu-
lations; these undulations are perceptible, although in a less degree at
Limerick ; they occupy nine hours at each station.
“(B.) The third portions exhibit a bold descent of the mercurial column ;
this descent commenced at Limerick at 9 p.m., and at Markree at 10 p.m.;
at the latter station it is uncertain if the lower vertex was observed, but it is
probable that it was observed at Limerick at 5 p.m. of the 22nd. Should the
6 o'clock observation at Markree have been the lowest, the extents of oscilla-
tion and the durations would have been as under.
Markree..... «..- .°404 20 hours.
Limertek. sic eisisse 28390, 20 hours.
“From these facts it appears that the atmospheric movements were one hour
in advance at Limerick, and that the extents of the undulations were greatest
at Markree.
“(B.) The features of these curves were observed at Halifax, but at later
periods; thus the curve obtained at Halifax commences with a fall of +133 ;
the vertex is not given, and the duration of the fall is at least sixteen hours ;
this fall terminated at 10 p.m., nine hours after the termination of the fall at
Markree; the flatter portion of the curve is well marked, extending from
10 p.m. to 8 A.M., one hour longer than the similar portions at Markree and
Limerick. At Halifax this portion has three complete, though small undula-
tions; the extents are given in the table of features of small undulations. The
termination of this portion of the curve at Halifax occurred at 8 a.m. of the
22nd, 10 hours after the termination of the similar portion at Markree. The
last portion of the curve was as well marked as at the Irish stations. During
the remaining ten hours the barometer fell *176, and it is probable that it
continued to fall, as this portion agrees with the last portions of the Irish
curves.
co)
|
|
|
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 65
_ ©(B.) It appears that the times occupied in the transference from Markree
to Halitax were nine and ten hours.
“(B.) The Oxford curve presents us with a portion of an earlier undulation;
the upper vertex is not given. The first (lower) vertex occurred at 1 P.M.,
the fall from the commencement of the observations being 055. The second
(upper) vertex took place at 6 p.M., the rise 019. From this point the fea-
tures of the curve are similar to those of the Markree, Limerick, and Halifax
curves, and from being moe southerly, the curve is more readily comparable
with that obtained at Limerick. ‘The fall occupies twelve hours, extent ‘103.
The two small undulations are distinctly perceptible, although contracted
both in length and height; they occupy about four hours. The last fall com-
mences at 10 a.M.; the reading at 5 p.m. is ‘003 lower than that at 6 p.m., but
it is uncertain if this is the vertex. The times occupied in the transference
of the phenomena are as under :—
From Limerick,
End of first fall . . . . . 18 hours.
End of small undulations . . 13 hours.
From Halifax,
End of first fall . . . . . 8 hours.
End of small undulations . . 2 hours.
«(B.) At London the principal features of the foregoing curves were appa-
rent. The fall, which occupied twelve hours at Oxford, occupied only nine
hours at London; the commencements of the fall were at the same hour, 6P.M.;
previous to this similar pheenomena were observed at the two stations, with
the exception of the earliest upper vertex, which occurred at London at 8 a.m.
The next lower and upper vertices occurred at the same hours at both sta-
tions. Oxford exhibiting the greatest ranges, the mean coincidence of the
vertices occurred at 35 30" p.m. The smaller undulations, so apparent in the
former curves, are nearly obliterated at London, and a rise of 030, occupying
seven hours, occurs in their stead. The commencement of the last fall at
London and Oxford is identical.
- *(B.) The comparison between the London and Brussels curves is highly
interesting ; the same undulations are exhibited, but at different times, and
the same diminution of oscillation that has been traced across England is still
apparent. The tables show these features very distinctly; and also that the
small undulations that were scarcely perceptible at London were apparent
at Brussels.
“(B.) Throughout the whole of these curves west of Brussels there are two
very prominent features, namely, the descents of the barometric column an-
terior and posterior to the small undulations. The complete features of these
descents are given in the table under the heads Vertex 4—, and Fall, after
small undulations. The features of the small undulations form a separate
table.
“ The European group, including London and excepting Hanover, presents
a set of similar curves, each exhibiting two complete undulations ; these six
curves may for convenience be subdivided into three minor groups, each pair
consisting of stations comparatively near each other. The group consisting
of the Cadiz and Gibraltar curves is highly interesting, especially on account
of the abrupt rise at Gibraltar at 5 a.m. and 6 a.m. of the 22nd. By neglect-
ing this rise, it will be seen that the two curves are very similar, and this
would induce the opinion, either that the abrupt rise arose from erroneous
observation or the non-application of a correction, or that some very local
action took place in the atmosphere. In these curves, Cadiz and Gibraltar,
1843. F
66 REPORT—1843.
we have two of the vertices coinciding in time to those at 5 P.M., the undula-
tions in one series being longer than in the other, there is consequently a
displacement on each side of this central vertex, the first* vertex occurring
earlier at Cadiz than at Gibraltar, and the second later. The undulation at
Cadiz is shallower than that at Gibraltar ; the time it occupied was fourteen
hours, and its depth ‘063, while at Gibraltar the time was nine hours, and
depth 070, The next undulation is about the same length at both stations,
the Gibraltar curve being two hours in advance of the Cadiz.
“(B.) The coincidence of vertices appears to have been generally exhibited
at the European stations; also in England, as noticed in the remarks on the
London curve ; and not only did the Oxford curve exhibit a longer, but also
a deeper undulation than the London curve. It may be remarked here that
Oxford and London are similarly situated relatively to each other as Cadiz
and Gibraltar.
«(B.) Geneva and Turin are the remaining European stations that exhibit
a coincidence of vertices; Geneva, similarly situated with respect to Turin as
Oxford to London, London to Brussels, and Cadiz to Gibraltar, generally ex-
hibits a greater range than Turin. The Turin curve, after the coincidence
of vertices, is one hour in advance of the Geneva curve.
‘«<(B.) The Hanover curve appears to form part of a distinct system ; it is
to be regretted that we do not possess observations to compare with it.
“(B,) From the above remarks, it appears that the affections of the atmo-
sphere were very different in the British Isles and Europe. Those in the
former gave rise to very extensive barometric undulations, while the obser-
vations obtained from the latter group showed that the atmosphere was but
slightly disturbed.
“(B.) The occurrence of the small undulations first observed at Limerick
and Markree, and traced with only one exception throughout the two groups,
is avery interesting feature in these curves, as well as the descent of the baro-
meter immediately following them, and which took place at every station in
the British Isles and Europe. The small undulations appeared to be very
irregular, and on two occasions, when they were scarcely observed, the states
of the barometric column were decidedly different, namely, falling at Lime-
rick and rising at London. The time, however, of the duration of these
undulations varies upon the whole but slightly, Halifax exhibiting the longest
and Oxford the shortest period, being respectively ten and four hours at
these stations.
* “ There appears to be some discrepancy between the statement that ‘ the next undula-
tion is about the same length at both stations’ and the table. By consulting the curves it
will be seen that the fall at Gibraltar from 8 P.M. to 5 a.m. consists of two undulations, al-
though they are not so bold as those at Cadiz ; assuming therefore that the fall agrees with
the Cadiz fall from 10 to 4, we have
he +
10 p.m. Cadiz. 10 a.m.
"062 8 A.M. ‘o14
8 P.M. Gibraltar. 8 A.M.
0-538 Baw 012
After these times, 10 a.m. and 8 A.M., the barometer fell at both stations, with the exception
of the rise of 008 at Gibraltar at 1 p.m.; this will make the fall at Gibraltar from 8 a.m.’
equal 076,”
|
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
67
«“(B.) Tables illustrative of the coincidence of vertices.
. BA ‘063 5 P.M.
Gibraltar. +
033 SPM
5 p.M- e
+
lla.m. 070
932 10 P.M.
Oxford and London.
+ Oxford, +
é 9 6 P.M. ‘lo
055 1 pM. o} 3 Gam. Oxford longest.
+ London. S05
8 A.M. “0. 6 P.M. 0.
3 9.
Pie iG AON ate We ts
Geneva and Turin.
aa Geneva. a
S A.M. OG, igi 1950 1] P.M. Geneva one hour longer.
+ Turin. +
8 A.M, ‘O50 ast 1052. 10 P.M.
Cadiz and Gibraltar.
+ Cadiz. +
Cadiz five hours longer.
« (B). Features of the small undulations.
Markree. Oxford.
Vertex-+ 2ist 5 p.m. Ahours ‘024 | Vertex+22nd 7}a.m. 14 hour 014
em of” 6 1 ,» "036 eget | 9 » 13 » O14
” + » 10 , A yy O15 » ton 10 ,, i aie 010
Limerick. London.
Vertex + 21st 2PM. Zhours “003 | 4 continuous rise ......- > légesaseiexeos t200BO
The remainder a continuous fall.
Halifax. Brussels.
Vertex + 21st 12 nrenr 2 hours 082 | Vertex+22nd 5am. lhour 006
» 22nd lam. be 3s 019 Pivzed ay Gui53 hols 003
tookoarhon 4 y 3 » ‘009 noGk in 7 » Low» 002
beam rors. 7 ” 3 ” 039 | ae | 10 ” 3 ” 005
» ton 8 » 1 , ‘O13 ies ate 12Noon 2 ,, 018
68 REPORT—1843.
«(B). Features of the small undulations (continued).
Geneva. Cadiz.
Vertex 22nd 2am. Vhour 002) Vertex 29nd 4a. Shours -022
= 4 2 032
a i 5 i 1 fd 026 3. 89 855, 4 “046
Sie ALY TOMGAET PSUUMAE "" k WARS Mec ane ac rth hla
8 2 007
de ni , ¥ id Gibraltar.
urin,
Vertex + 22nd 2 a.m. 2hours ‘009 | Vertex+ 22nd 8 a.m. 3hours ‘012
ee 45 oy Ity ‘004 | eaten 10 ” 2 ” “029
See ee fae Avs} 033 Peale canes} lpm. ait 5 008
|
Vertex ] + Vertex 2 — Vertex 3 + | Vertex 4 —
Station.
: . | Ex- : Dur. | Ex- : Dur. | Ex- E Dur.| Ex- | —
Time. nm, sat Time. | iits. tent.|| Time. Bis!) teak. Time. Eres deat, i
Markree i: ia Adlhs be 21 lpm. | 7 /096|
Limerick eile ee a4 coe 2112 Noon| 6 |060} —
Halifax... eee att Po Meee ae vee | vee 121 10 p.m. | 16 [1383 |
Oxford... wu we | eee [21 Lem.) 7 [055 121 G6e.m.| 5 |-019 |22 Gam. | 12/103) —
London 21 8 a.m.) 2 |018/21 1 ,, | 5 |:039}/21 6,, | 5 |018/22 3 ,, 9 |-094
Brussels 121 1 p.m.) 7 |038|21 6 ,, | 5 |034 12112 nr.) 6 |-029 22 4 ,, 4 |-027
Geneva.../21 8 a.m.) 2 |-019|/21 6 ,, | 10 |-064 [21 llp.m.) 5 |-050/22 1 ,, 2 |-042
Turin ...(21 8 ,, 2 |-006 ||21 6 ,, | 10 |:05212110 ,, | 4 |-052 21 12n1eH7} 2 |-009 | —
Cadiz ...|21 8 , 2 |-017|/21 5 ,, | 9 |-063||2110,, | 5 |-033 22 lam. | 8 |-0388) —
Gibraltar |21 11 ,, 5 |060|121 5 ,, | 6 |-070}21 8 ,, | 3 |-0383 122 5 ,, 9 |-058 |
Se err ae rE
i I
Small Undulations. Fall.
Station
Commencement.| Rise.| Fall. End. ah Commencement. bs aa End.
Markree ...| 21 lpm. |-024|-021| 21 10 e.m 9 || 21 10 pM 20 |-404 | 22 6pm.
Limerick ...} 21 12 Noon |:003}052| 21 9 ,, De Dl Oe aces 20 |:350 | 22 5 ,, |e
Halifax ....| 21 10 p.m. |-032|-036} 22 8 a.m 10 || 22 8am 10 |+176 | 22 6 ,,}
Oxford ...... 22 Gam. |014|-004| 22 10 ,, 4 || 2210 ,, 7 1081/22 5 , 1%
London ....| 22 3. ,, 030 |-000| 22 10 ,, 7 ||. 22.10. ,, 8 |-067 | 22 6 ,,|
Brussels ....| 22 4 ,, |018]:000| 22 12 Noon | 8 || 22 12Noon | 6 |°021 | 22 6 ,, |
Geneya...... 22 1 ,, |002}-000) 22 8 a.m 7 || 22 Sam. | 10 |'075 | 22 6 ,,
Turin ...... 21 12 nreut}038 |000| 22 7 ,, 7 ae lee 10 |-082 | 22 5 ,, |
Cadiz,’ .....: 22 lam. |022|-032| 22 10 ,, 9 |} 22 10 ,, 8 |:102 |} 22 6 ,,
Gibraltar 22 5am. |012|021| 22 lpm. 8 || 22. le. 41:055 | 22 5 ,, |=
Sept. 1836.—Markree, Limerick, Halifax, Oxford, London (with Green-
wich and Blackheath), Brussels, Hanover, Geneva, Turin, Gibraltar, Cadiz.
This series affords a fine instance of a fluctuation traceable over the whole
area embraced (though gradually modified from station to station), under cir-
cumstances permitting us to determine the direction, breadth, and velocity of
transference of an atmospheric wave on a large scale with considerable cer-
tainty. .
The diurnal oscillations are not only perceptible, but form pretty conspi-
cuous features of most of the curves. To begin with the southern stations :—
At Gibraltar the first projected minimum (that of 4 ».M.), and the second or
morning minimum is thrown somewhat later than its regular epoch (to 5 or
6 a.m.). Both the maxima are distinct. At Cadiz the first minimum is con-
cealed by a casual minimum superposed on it. The adjacent maximum (that
a
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 69
of 10 p.m.) is also somewhat displaced, and thrown later than usual by an irre-
gular elevation or protuberance, which is also traceable in the Gibraltar
curve; but the second minimum and maximum (those of the morning and
forenoon of the 22nd) are very distinct. At Turin and Hanover the effect
of the periodical oscillations is barely perceptible. At Geneva and Brussels
it is perfectly distinct, as it is also, and not to be mistaken, at London, Green-
wich, Blackheath and Oxford. At Halifax, obvious errors in the reading of
the instrument interfere, but at Markree and Limerick these oscillations re-
appear with perfect distinctness in the morning and forenoon of the 22nd.
When these are smoothed off, the charts offer a fine example of a very
regular and steady wave advancing from N.W. to S.E., perfectly identifiable
in its greater features, though somewhat modified in its progress. Beginning
with the Irish stations, Markree and Limerick agree in presenting us with a
gentle fall of the mercury throughout, only that at the latter of these stations
the descent is somewhat accelerated towards the end of the series, and
retarded in its earlier hours (from 6 to 8 hours), so as give rise to a relative
maximum at 1] 30™. At Halifax this descending tendency disappears.
The curve consists of a slight fall at the commencement with a minimum
(m') at 1 hour, followed by a steady rise continued for 13 hours, up to a
maximum M! at 14 hours; whence it sinks with much regularity to the end
of the series, terminating at the same level where it began. This maximum
(M') I consider as identical with that which passed Limerick at 112 30™.
The Oxford curve begins with a pretty steady ascent, and rising with three
rather remarkable sub-undulations (whose summits occur at 8 hours, 10 hours,
12 hours respectively), attains a maximum nearly coincident in respect of
time with that of Halifax, and descends somewhat more abruptly than it rose,
tothe end of the series. The crown of the wave was vertically over Oxford
at 135 20".
In London and its environs the ascent of the wave occupies the whole of
the first 23 hours. It is very regular and gradual, but with the same traces
of a preceding minimum. The crown of the wave was vertically over this
locality at 22 hours, and the beginning of its descent is decidedly marked.
At Brussels and Hanover the whole series is occupied by the ascending
wave. Its summit, if vertically over either of these stations at all within the
series, must have been so nearly at its termination, or at 25 hours.
The cuive for Geneva commences with a slight fall and a decided and broad
minimum extending over the 2nd and 3rd hours, clearly demonstrating the
presence of the trough of a preceding wave. This having passed over to the
south-east, the rise of our wave commences, and is maintained almost or quite
_ to the end, where, however, some indications of a commencing descent may
be observed.
At Turin, the trough of the preceding wave was here, as at Geneva, in the
act of passing during the earlier hours of the series. It is perfectly well made
out, the epoch of the minimum being 3 hours, which is followed by a steady
rise to a maximum, which here, as at Geneva, is just perceived to be on the
turn where the projected series breaks off.
At Cadiz, not only the minimum or trough of the preceding wave, but some
considerable portion of its descent comes into view in the earlier hours, indi-
eated by a falling barometer from 0 to 5 hours, where the minimum occurs.
The rest of the series is occupied by the subsequent ascending wave, which
continues to the 24th hour. Its course however is less uniform ; its upward
slope marked by an exaggeration of the forenoon maximum; and its turn
downwards at the end of the series unequivocally expressed.
In the Gibraltar curve the barometer readings for the 4th and 5th hour
70 REPORT—1842,
have been obviously misread by two-tenths of an inch. This being corrected,
a very flat minimum extending over the 4th, 5th, and 6th hour appears, mark-
ing, as at Cadiz, the termination of the preceding depression. At 7 hours,
and not earlier, the rise of the mercury began, and continued uninterrupted
(except by the regular periodic oscillations) to the end of the series without
any indication, within its limits, of a re-commencing descent.
From a review of the whole of this highly interesting term, the following
conclusions may be drawn.
A perfectly well-marked and definite atmospheric wave passed over the
British Isles and the west of Europe on the day in question, the crest of the
wave having a direction nearly N.N.E. and S.8.W., and its progress being
from W.N.W. to E.S.E. The half breadth of the wave, which oceupied 26
hours in its passage, covered a space extending from Oxford in a direction
perpendicular to that of the crest, to a point not far from Halle in Wiirtem-
burgh, which gives, by rough measurement on a map; about 540 miles, and
a velocity of about 21 miles per hour. The barometric depth of this wave may
be stated at 0-2 inch.
December 1836.—Markree, Edinburgh, Halifax, Oxford, London (with
Greenwich), Ashurst, Brussels, Hanover, Kremsmiinster, Geneva, St.Jean de
Maurienne, Turin, Gibraltar, Cadiz.
The effects of the regular diurnal oscillation are tolerably distinct in the
curves for London, Greenwich, Oxford, Turin, and Geneva, especially as
respects the maximum at 22 hours, which appears to have been at all of these
stations exaggerated into a considerable upward bulge, as it is also at Krems-
minster, Hanover, and Brussels, where the other niaximum and the minima
are much less conspicuous. At Gibraltar the bulge in question assumes the
character of a sustained elevation; at Cadiz, that of an undulating level. In
the former of these two stations the other maximum and the minima disap-
pear entirely, the curve presenting nearly a dead level from 0 to’7 hours, which
is resumed after a trifling fall at the 8th hour, and continued to the 20th. In
the latter the morning minimum is not only obliterated, but converted into
an abrupt protuberance, occupying the interval from 14 hours to 17 hours,—
a feature which I have already had occasion to notice in the terms of March
and June 1836, and which appears to constitute a remarkable peculiarity in
the diurnal movements of the atmosphere in this corner of the European
continent. At Markree, Edinburgh, and Halifax, neither of the regular
maxima or minima can be clearly made out. ;
Abstraction made of the periodical oscillations, the features of the conti-
nental curves, taken as a whole, offer little accordance. The range is least
(and very small) at Brussels and Gibraltar, especially the former, ¢orrobo-
rating a general remark to which my attention has been called by Mr. Birt,
that Brussels may be regarded in some sort as a node of barometric undula-
tion, departing from which on either side the ranye inereases ; a remark to
which I shall subsequently have occasion to call attention more pointedly.
Geneva, St. Jean de Maurienne and Turin, agree in the maintenance of nearly
an uniform level (a slight downward tendency being only noticeable at Turin)
for the fourteen hours from 0 to 14 hours, when they all begin to sink to a
feeble but distinct minimum between the 17th and 18th hours, rising again
to a maximum at the 22nd, which (as observed above) being more than is due
to the regular oscillation, must be locked upon as belonging to a passing wave.
Kremsmiinster belongs also to the same system, but the descent of its curve
from 0 to 16 hours is greater than at Turin (amounting to 0-09 inch), and
marked by two conspicuous undulations in the 4th and 6th hours, which how-
ever are merely local, as they do not appear in any of the associated curves.
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 71]
The minimum and maximum of the 17th and 21st hours are hardly more
marked than what the periodical oscillations will account for.
Hanover is, as usual, peculiar. The slight tendency to fall as far as the
5th hour, and preservation of a level from thence to the 12th, indeed would
tend to connect it with the former system, but instead of going on thence to
a minitium, the curve begins thence to rise slowly but steadily as far as the
21st hour (through 0:03 inch), when again a slight but abrupt protuberance
at the 22nd hour recals the corresponding feature in the Geneva group.
In Britain the Ashurst curve is interrupted from the 7th to the 18th hour,
but where traced is nearly identical with those of London, Greenwich, and
Blackheath ; and we may add also, with slight modifications, of Oxford. All
these four curves agree in a minimum between the hours 0 and 1 of a very
flattened character, followed by a gentle rise of about 0°08 inch, which con-
tinues to the 18th hour, where in London aid Ashurst a trace of the Geneva
minimum occurs, followed, in these as well as at Oxford, by the protuberance
already noticed in the Continental system.
Proceeding thence to Halifax, Edinburgh and Markree, the range in-
creases, and the curves undergo a great change of character. In the cutves
of all three, indeed, a minimum in the beginning of the series, and a rapid
downward tendency at its termination, connect them with the other members
of the group, but in the intermediate hours their course is very different.
‘Halifax rises to a bold maximum at 3 hours, through a range of 0°20 inch,
after which it descends again with equal decision to the end of the term.
Edinburgh is marked through its whole course with sudden ascents and de-
scents, of a very desultory character, neglecting which, if a flowing curve be
drawn, we find it rise, as in the case of Halifax, to a single strong maximum
at 10 hours (or 5 hours earlier than at Halifax), and thence descending again
to and beyond its initial level, giving a total range of 0°13 inch. The wind,
which was moderate or light at Edinburgh during the afternoon of the 21st,
gives no clue to the explanation of an extremely abrupt zigzag in the curve at
3 hours and 4 hours, which therefore have probably originated in misreadings.
The Markree curve rises from its minimum at 0 hour to a maximum at
12 hours, through 0°12 inch, thence retains its level nearly unchanged till
between 17 and 18 hours, when the rise to the diurnal maximum commences,
followed by a pretty decided slope downward, which beyond the limits of the
projected curve (as the continuance of the observations show) became rapid,
and was accompanied by a gale of wind from the west. A heavy gale from
the same quarter is also noted at Halifax attending the decline of the baro-
meter at that station, and at Edinburgh it is also recorded as freshening to a
moderate and ultimately to a “high” wind ; the strength of the wind in each
ease increasing with the barometric depression.
March 1837.—Markree, Halifax, Edinburgh, London, Greenwich, Brus-
sels, Hanover, Geneva, St. Jean de Maurienne, Turin, Kremsiniinster, Cadiz,
Gibraltar, Tangier.
- This term presents nothing very distinct. The barometric ranges for the
most part small, and where moderately large not well agreeing. The follow-
ing may be noted as features of some interest.
Diurnal oscillations —Very perceptible at London, Greenwich, Brussels,
Geneva, Kremsmiinster.
Range.—Very small at Brussels, Hanover, Gibraltar, Tangier. Greatest
at Markree, Halifax, Kremsmiinster. The nodal character of Brussels may
be regarded as supported by the observations of this term on the whole.
Sudden and broken undulatory movements.—Remarkable at Edinburgh
from the 12th to the 17th hour.
72 REPORT—1843.
Abnormal protuberances.—At Gibraltar, as already noticed in the terms of
1836, a low and unequivocal rise and fall from 14 to 18 hours, where, accord-
ing to the law of periodicity, the reverse ought to have happened. A relative
protuberance, similar, no doubt, in character, occurs at Cadiz in the interval
from 13 to 16 hours, though (owing to the generally descending course of the
curve from the 11th to the 16th hour) it rather appears as an abrupt shoulder
than as a positive elevation.
St. Jean de Maurienne and Geneva, both offering a good deal of irregula-
rity, yet preserve a good parallelism, notwithstanding the intervening Alps,
high among which the former is situated.
June 1837.—Markree, Halifax, Oxford, London, Greenwich, Ashurst,
Brussels, Hanover, Drachenfels, Kremsmiinster, Geneva, Turin, Cadiz, Gibral-
tar, Tangier.
Diurnal oscillations—Nowhere well made out. At Cadiz and Gibraltar
the place of the 16 minimum is occupied by an abnormal maximum of the
character already so often noticed.
Term fluctuations—At Markree, Halifax, London, Oxford, Brussels, a
regular and (with exception of Markree, where the curve is considerably
convex on and near 12 hours) a nearly uniform rise, at nearly the same rate
in all, of about 0:01 inch per hour.
Beyond Brussels, in this order of sequence, the character changes. At
Drachenfels the rise was trifling till the 9th hour, when a sudden jump up-
wards of 0:086 took place, which (as Mr. Forbes’s barometer was of course
a portable one) might be owing to some accident ; especially as the subsequent
course of the curve is level, or nearly so, as far as 16 hours, when it begins
to rise in correspondence with the Brussels curve.
Hanover and Kremsmiinster fall rather than rise, though but very slightly,
during the first 4 or 5 hours. Both thence rise slowly till ]5 hours, then
pretty suddenly. In the Hanover curve the rise continues to theend. And
at Kremsmiinster it extends only to 20 hours, where a flat maximum is at-
tained, followed by a slight but continued depression to the end of the
series.
Geneva and Turin hold a kind of reversed parallel; the former, after some
undulation, rising to a maximum at 12 hours, and thence falling to 14 hours;
the latter falling to a minimum at 6 hours, and thence rising until 4 hours.
After these epochs respectively both curves run nearly level to the end.
Cadiz fluctuates much and irregularly, Gibraltar little, and Tangier main-
tains throughout an almost unbroken level. Neither of the three offer any
features of resemblance to the other curves already described.
Little more can be gathered from this term than that a general rise of the
barometer took place during its continuance in the north of Europe, which
was only partially participated in, in its middle, and hardly at all in its
southern regions.
Dec. 1837.—Markree, Edinburgh, Halifax, Cambridge, Oxford, Ashurst,
London, Greenwich, Brussels, Hanover, Kremsmiinster, Geneva, Turin,
Cadiz. '
The principal feature of this term is a complete separation of Turin from
all the stations north of the chain of Alps as well as from Cadiz, both in respect
of the amount and character of its barometric fluctuations. In the curve for
this station a gentle rise throughout the series of about 0°13 inch, witha flat-
tened minimum in the earlier hours, a somewhat undulating and gentle rise
to a relative, or in some cases to an absolute maximum, during the greater
part of the projected 24 hours; a slight tendency to depression in the morn-
ing and forenoon of the Zad day of the term, and a resumption of the gentle
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 73
rise to the end of the projected series, may be taken as the general character
of the curves; in which the diurnal maxima and minima are for the most
part conspicuously traceable, and which, when allowed for, equalize several
of the curves nearly into regularly sloping lines, with a slight general con-
vexity. This is especially the case with Brussels, Greenwich, London, Ash-
urst, and Oxford; the curve for Brussels being decidedly the smoothest of the
whole series. In Markree and Cambridge absolute maxima occur at the
14th hour, which is followed at Markree by a very gentle and continued
depression ; while at Cambridge, after descending to a pretty abrupt minimum
(at 17 hours), the rising tendency is resumed and carried out to the end.
At Halifax the rise is continued till between 16 and 17 hours, when an abso-
lute maximum occurs, followed by an undulating level. At Geneva also
there is an absolute though slight maximum from 13 to 14 hours, followed
by a very slightly undulating level to the end. At Kremsmiinster the early
minimum (as is also the case at Geneva) is more marked and prolonged than
can be referred to the action of the diurnal oscillation. In fact the Krems-
minster curve consists of two unequal portions like a vibrating string, having
a node at the 15th hour, the earlier portion being concave, the later convex
upwards; the deflexions in both, however, being small, viz. 0°03 inch and
0°05.
_ Hanover is again peculiar; as far as the 17th hour its curve follows the
same law of gentle and undulating rise; but here a sudden irregular action
commences, indicated by a great protuberance caused by a rapid rise of 0°10
inch toa maximum at 8" 36™, sinking thence to a minimum at the 22nd hour,
and again rising to the end.
From the type of all these curves that of Turin differs entirely. It com-
mences by a gentle descent to a slight minimum at 2" 36™, from which it
nearly recovers by an undulating rise as far as 5" 36™, when it takesa sudden
plunge down of 0:086 inch to an abrupt minimum at 6" 45"; whence it im-
mediately recovers, and in the three next hours ascends through 0°132 in.
to a maximum at 9" 45™, then descends unsteadily through 0:067 inch to
another minimum; after which follows a gentle rise to the end of the term.
Nothing can place in a clearer light the action of the Alpine chain in inter-
cepting a small wave, of which the undulations might be confined chiefly to
the lower strata (since nothing prevents the atmospheric strata from being
very unequally disturbed, as we see in the fluctuations of superposed liquids).
The curve for Cadiz commences, like that of Turin, with a gentle descent,
and, like it, has a slight minimum at 25 36™, whence it recovers, not as at
Turin, by violent starts and falls, but by a very gradual and easy slope up to
12 13™, when it again descends. From 13"°36™ to 155 42™, however, we
are reminded by a protuberance in the descending line, of the feature already
signalized as a peculiarity of this station on former occasions.
Hitherto we have foreborne to mention the Edinburgh curve, which exhi-
bits a strange anomaly, such as neither the course of the changes at Markree
or Halifax would lead us to expect, and which, if it do not arise from some
error of reading affecting the first 6 hours, goes to place in a strong light the
capricious suddenness of the barometric changes at this station, of which we
have already seen instances.
The Edinburgh curve commences, like the other British and many of the
continental ones, with a slight fall to a minimum; anticipatory in this case
of the regular diurnal minimum, viz. at 1"24™; thence it rises gently enough
(through 0:059 in.) as far as 6 24™, when on a sudden it starts up, rising in
the next 2 hours through 0°244 in., after which it maintains this increased
level with only a very trifling variation up to the end of the series.
74 Ay - -REPORT1843.
Dec. 1837.—Markree, Edinburgh, Halifax, Beaumaris, Oxford, London,
barat Brussels, Alost, Louvain, Geneva, Ktemsmiinster, Turin, Parma,
adiz.
This term is in every respect full of interest, and fortunately the stations
are numerous and well-situated. It exhibits the rise, culmination, and fall of
a great wave, travelling from north to south, or perhaps from north-west to
south-east, and exhibiting at its culmination, at many stations very remote
from one another, features giving it a peculiar character and individuality.
The breadth of this wave was such that at no single station are both the rise
and fall wholly included in the term; so that it is by successive stages as it
were that each station contributes its quota to our knowledge of its progress.
Not a little remarkable either is it that Cadiz appears to have been entirely
without its range, the barometrical curve of that station exhibiting nearly a
level, varied only by the diurnal oscillations, which are unusually and stri-
kingly prominent, and having, on the whole, a slight tendency to descent.
Markree is the oniy other station in which (from the otherwise even and
regular slope of its curve) these periodical movements are apparent.
The Markree observations, as projected, exhibit only the descent of the
wave, its culmination having passed that station, or being in the act of passing
it at the very commencement of the projected seriesor 0 hour. Referring to
the original register in which 36 hours (6 before and 6 after the projected
term) are included,I find this partly corroborated, the barometer having been
on the rise during that whole interval. Nevertheless, as it will appear from a
consideration of the other curves, that the wave had in fact a double crest,
separated by an interval of several hours, it is not quite certain that the absolute
culmination, or true maximum of pressure, is exhibited at all in the Markree
series. The moderate downward slope of the Markree curve (which de-
seends on the whole only 0°33 inch in the 30 hours registered from its appa-
rent maximum) supports this idea, the total fluctuation, as it appears in the
more southern stations, having been more than double this amount.
At Edinburgh the absolute culmination of the wave took place at 10 a.m.
Ed. m.t.=10" 30™ Brussels M.. of the 21st hour, being marked in a manner
characteristic of the locality, by a very sudden upward start of a whole tenth
of an inch in the hour preceding that epoch, and a fall of very nearly the
same amount in the hour subsequent, producing a high peak or pinnacle in
the barometric curve at that hour (22nd hour, Sept. 21), which, as it will be
hereafter referred to, I shall term the first culmination of the wave. From
the 11th hour the Edinburgh curve preserves its level as far as 15 30™ (Sept.
22), (1 30 p.m., Sept. 21, civil reckoning), when it dips for one hour to a
slight minimum, and rises again to a maximum at 30 hours, thence descend-
ing to another minimum at 6" 30™. Thus the interval from 25 30™ to 65 30™.
is filled with the second culmination of our wave, which however is here not
very marked, the whole descent to the minimum being only 0-046. To this
succeeds a third culmination not quite so high as the second, and occupying
2 hours (to 85 30™), when a very abrupt and sheer descent commences for
the next 3 hours (through 0°197 inch) to another minimum, or rather to a
motionless level or pause in the descent, continued for 3 hours more (to
15"30™). From this point a very trifling rise takes place to a feeble culmina-
tion at 16" 30™, after which the descent continues till the end of the registered
series, which in this ease unluckily breaks off at 18"30™, instead of being
continued to the end of the term. The total observed range is 0°388.
The Beaumaris curve exhibits a singular contrast with the Edinburgh,
being as smooth as the other is abruptly broken. It exhibits 4 hours of the
ascent of our wave and 14 hours of. the descent (the term not having been.
CSS at oor dieeiwr dae aes
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——-
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=F renting ar
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 75
completely observed), both of a gentle character. The absolute culmination
occurs at 4" 30™ (Sept. 21), and the total observed range small (0*172 inch).
The Halifax series (which is complete, including 36 hours) exhibits the
Wave in progress of ascent from 5"30™ a.m. to 5" 30™ p.m. of the 21st; during
which 12 hours the mercury had risen 0°278 inch. At this epoch (55 30™) I
place the first culmination, which is, in fact, the highest of a series of low
undulations. The second takes place at 8°30", but is of so flattened and
obsolete a character that it hardly deserves to be called so, and is rather a
low convexity interposed between the first and third, which occurs at 105 94™,
and is more marked, though not strongly, and at a lower level by 0033 inch
than the first. From this the curve descends very regularly to the end. Total
observed range = 0°348 inch.
At Oxford the first culmination is 5520". It is a sharp and sudden pin-
nacle on the upward general slope of the curve of about 0°07 inch in height
on 4 base of 2 hours. From its subsidence at 6" 20™, the curve continues
to rise for three hours more, till it attains a second maximum from 9" 30™ to
105 30™, which places the second culmination at 10 hours. The form of this
culmination is an obtuse bulge extending over the three hours from 8 30™
to 11530", and is followed by a dead level leading to a shoulder or quick
slope at 15"30™, and which is the last representative of our third culini-
nation, which seems to have died out or thinned off in the progress of the
wave.
At London the ascent of the wave continues till 6"18™, which is the epoch
of the first culmination, indicated by a great bulge in the upward slope (as
at Oxford) of 0°07 inch in height and 3 hours in breadth. The second cul-
mination occurs at 10" 18™, and is here the higher of the two, by a very tri-
fling difference (0°007 inch), and from it the descent of the wave commences
and continues uninterrupted.
Greenwich, though so near London, has the epoch of the first culmination
an hour later; that of the second coincident, and also (0°007 inch) higher
than the first. Both too are sharper. The descent of the curve is also some-
what more undulating than for London.
Passing from the British to the continental curves, we are at once presented
with a marked contrast in respect of smoothness. The Brussels curve offers
a very uniform and even convexity. The distinction of the culminations is
obliterated, and an absolute maximum at 13 hours is alone observable. At
this station the total range of ascent observed (during 19 hours) was 0:957
inch, and that of descent (during 17 hours) = 0°289. The curves for
Alost and Louvain appear in all respects similar, but both their vertices are
wanting. Passing now to Geneva, we find the ascent of the wave observed
during the first 23 hours, and the descent during only the remaining 13
liours of the total series of 36 hours. The absolute culmination observed
occurs at 21 hours, or at 9 A.M. of September 22, and no distinction of what
have been called above the first, second and third culminations is to be made.
But in the sloping ascent of the wave 10 hours antecedent to the culmina-
tion, is a very remarkable bulge, extending over the interval from 9 hours to
18 hours, which, as it appears also in the Turin and Parnia curves, deserves
notice. The whole ascent appears in the Geneva curve, and the minimum
or trough of the preceding wave occurs at 1 hour; the total range of ascent
being 0343 inch, occupying 20 hours, being preceded by 3 hours of unde-
cided fluctuation.
At Kremsmiiinster also the ascent of the wave, if not from the absolute
minimum preceding, at least from a relative minimum but little elevated above
it, has been observed. The true culmination took place at 21" 25™, and the
76 REPORT—1843.
whole curve is remarkable for its smoothness. The range in 22 hours from
the projected minimum is 0°733 inch.
At Turin and Parma the absolute minimum of the preceding wave is fairly
brought into view. In the former it occurs at 1" 42™, in the latter at 12 0™.
In both series the upward slope of the wave is broken by many subordinate
fluctuations. Of these, one is evidently correspondent in the two series. It
occupies at Turin the interval from 13" 46™ to 17" 46™, and at Parma from
15" 36™ to 18" 36™, forming an obtuse bulge on the slope of the curves, with
a very remarkable shoulder at the end, or at the later of the two hours above
indicated in each. After this each curve continues to ascend, and at 9546™
at Turin and 10° 36™ at Parma, attains a maximum which I consider as iden-
tical with that noticed at Geneva as extending from 9 hours to 13 hours,
and of which the corresponding epochs, determined by comparing the middle
points of each, may be stated at 11 hours and 23 hours respectively for Ge-
neva and Parma. The Turin series unfortunately breaks off at 10" 46™, so
that a perfect identification of this feature for that station is prevented, but
the general parallelism of the two curves for Turin and Parma leaves no
room to doubt it. The Parma series continues till 6 p.m. on the 22nd, and
continues to rise to the end, 2. e. till 5" 46™ m.r. at Brussels, at which epoch,
however, the rise is so small that the true culmination may be considered as
nearly attained, and would probably have been actually observed had the
observations been continued another hour or two. Assuming this, and that
the epoch of culmination for Parma was 31 hours, we have the following
corresponding epochs :—
SREMEV A oh oh esti tiga ste 115+ | 20 59 |
Kremsmunster .. 0s... ... fc0-|.-+2 00s 21 25
Tah. oo, saa 175 46™| 22 +
Lg tar Rear g Bgeh 18 36 | 23 a og
which give 1 hour for the time of the wave passing from Turin to Parma,
and 10 hours from Geneva to Parma, while Kremsmunster is somewhat less
than half an hour later than Geneva.
If we compare the culminations only, or what we must suppose to have
been the culminations, at all the stations, we have as follows :—
1st culm. 2nd culm. Absolute culm.
Markree ..| Doubtful. | + O08 50™ || Brussels........| +135 Om™
Edinburgh..| —1" 30™ | + 4 30 || Geneva........| +20 52
Halifax ....| +5 24 | + 8 24 Kremsminster ..| +21 25
Oxford ....|} +5 20 | + 9 50 | Parma ........ +31 +
London....| +6 18 +10 i8
Greenwich..| +7 18 +10 18
Assuming the first culmination to have been the true one, and that in the
progress of the wave they either run together or the second thins off and is
lost, we have 32" 30™ for the time occupied in traversing the interval from
Edinburgh to Parma, which in a direct line being about 950 miles, would
give a mean velocity of 28 miles per hour, supposing the front of the wave
to have been at right angles to this direction. But if we compare the inter-
vals with the distances, we shall find this supposition to be inadmissible, for
we find the progress of the wave to have been as follows :—
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. "7
: Angle with meridian Distance in | Time of tra-
cenit of line joining them. | statute miles.| versing it.
Edinburgh to London ... aie 330 728
London to Brussels ...... 75 100 6 °7
Brussels to Geneva ...... 16 330 #39
Geneva to Parma......... 62 220 10 *1
These stations divide themselves into two classes; those whose directions
are little inclined (the lst and 3rd pairs) to the meridian, and those (the
2nd and 4th) whose directions are much inclined. The mean of the former
gives 660™ in 15" 7™, or 42™-0 per hour in a mean direction, 17° 30! inclined
to the meridian; that of the latter, 320™ in 168 8™, or 19™-0 per hour in a
mean direction, 68° 30! inclined. These data, by the resolution of a plane
triangle whose sides are 42:0 and 19:0 respectively, and the included angle
= 68° 30’ — 17° 30' = 51° 0! give 10° for the inclination of the front of the
wave to the meridian, or a direction of progress from 10° N. of W. to 10° S.
of E., and an actual velocity of 18°62 miles per hour.
From this, as well as from the moderate range of the observations at Mar-
kree, it would appear that in fact neither of the points which we have termed
the first and second culminations were observed at that station, and that the
maximum actually observed was in the nature of a protuberance on the slope
of the wave analogous perhaps to what we termed the third culmination in
the Edinburgh observations.
The winds of this term offer many points of interest. At Edinburgh we have
mention of “strong winds” rising into “ violence” at 17 hours and 21 hours
from S.and §.W. In London, high wind in the morning of the 21st, from N.
passing into N.N.E., the mercury being rising, whereas at the time of the
violent winds at Edinburgh (at a later hour) it was falling. And it is further
noticeable that in the London series a complete reversal of the direction of the
wind took place before the end of the term, passing from N. by the E. to S.,
thence ranging to S.W., and finally settling in the S. with abated force. At
Halifax also a similar reversal of direction from N.E. round by E., S.E., S.W.
to W., and then settling back to S.W., was observed, as the barometer rose,
culminated and fell, the strongest indication being from the W. at 20 hours,
Dec. 21. At Beaumaris, the change of direction was from N.W. (very light)
by W. (moderate) to W.S.W. (strong), the maximum of strength being about
midnight of the 21st. The Oxford series begins with a high but subsiding
wind from N., with rising barometer, passing round by E. to S.W., and dying
into a calm with a falling one. At Brussels the changes were as in London,
beginning from N., passing round by E. as far as N.N.W., then settling back
through W. and S.W., and at the same time dying away from the time of the
culmination so as to obliterate the gradations of its shift. At Geneva the
_ series began with violent wind from S. and S.W., settling into calm as the
mercury rose. At Kremsmiinster, gentle from N.W. and N. during the first
half of the series, calm during the last. On the whole, I am disposed to re-
gard the winds recorded as the sequel of a more violent gale antecedent to
the series observed.
The discussion of this highly interesting term has detained us long. Nevers
theless it is impossible to conclude it without remarking on the elucidation
which EVEN A SINGLE Frencu sTATION would have afforded, of the discon-
nexion of Cadiz from the others; and I cannot but add some expression of
regret, that in all our accumulated observations we have none from France,
the whole of whose vast territory thus interposed (with Spain and Portugal)
78 REPORT—1843,
between the line of our European stations and those of Cadiz, Gibraltar and
Tangier, in great measure cripples the efficiency of these last, and reduces
to a small outlying disconnected group what would otherwise haye been a
really important integral member of our European series. Let us hope that
on any future occasion which may arise, a spirit of scientific cooperation will
prevent our nearest continental neighbours from suffering their country to
remain a blank in the record.
March 1838.—Markree, Edinburgh, Halifax, Cambridge, Oxford, London,
Greenwich, Brussels, Kremsmiinster, Cadiz.
Diurnal Oseillations.—Particularly prominent and indeed exaggerated in the
curves for London, Greenwich, Oxford and Cambridge. Less conspicuous but
yet discernible in that for Brussels; quite imperceptible at Markree and Edin-
burgh ; and so far counteracted by causes of a contrary character at Halifax,
that the maxima and minima throughout appear to haye changed places.
The most important and indeed the only prominent feature in this term, is
the comparative repose of the barometer at Brussels, and its gradually in-
creasing disturbance in receding from that station, The Brussels curve pre-
sents a gently undulating line, with a total range of only 0°053 (of which a
considerable proportion is due to diurnal oscillation), and a very trifling fall
on the whole of only 0°03. London and Greenwich, on the other hand, ex-
hibit a rising glass, with a range of 07195, Oxford and Cambridge a more
rapid ascent, the latter ranging over 0°260 inch, while at Halifax, Edinburgh
and Markree the rise was very rapid, amounting in the 26 projected hours
to 0°515 inch for Halifax, and 0°508 inch for Markree, at which two stations
the ascent was continuous, and at Markree almost uniform, while at Edin-
burgh (in conformity with the barometrie character of the locality) it was
irregular and interrupted, ranging over 07442 inch in 19 hours, the series
being broken off before the conclusion of the term,
Departing from Brussels in other directions, we find only two very distant
stations, Kremsmiinster and Cadiz, both marked by considerable fluctuations.
At the former we commence with a fall of 0°283, from 6 a.m. to a minimum
at 6 p.M., March 21 (—6"to + 6"), then a rise of 0'102 to a maximum at
midnight, followed by another fall of 0°273 to a stationary point at 6 p.m. of
the 22nd, a fluctuation which has nothing corresponding to it in any of the
other stations. At Cadiz, a general ascent of 0°224 took place, interrupted
only by two slight undulations, over the whole interval from the commence-
ment of the series to 21 hours, Sept. 21, from which point the mercury fell
(through 0:070) till the end of the series.
June 1838.—Markree, Edinburgh, Halifax, Cambridge, London, Green-
wich, Alost, Brussels, Louvain, Kremsmiinster, Cadiz.
The general character of the curves in this term is ascending, the diurnal
oscillations not traceable, except that for Brussels, which, when cleared of
their visible effect, presents a smooth and nearly straight outline, with an
ascending range of 0°238 in the 26 projected hours. This smooth character
(which, as we have so often had occasion to remark, belongs to this locality)
is departed from even in places so little remote as Alost and Louvain, in both
of which subordinate but characteristic fluctuations occur, as they do also in
the London, Greenwich and Cambridge curves. At Alost, indeed, some local
cause appears to have acted rather powerfully, the ascent being not only in-
terrupted, but reversed during the three hours before midnight, in the middle
of the term. At London and Greenwich a similar cause, but of less energy,
seems to have been in action six hours earlier, but as traces of the same action
occur simultaneously though more feebly at both Alost and Louvain, it is not
possible to identify them as phases of a wave in progress.
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 79
In all the six curves enumerated, abstracting these and other more trifling
inequalities, the rise is nearly at the same rate, and they form a group in de-
cided accordance. Halifax and Edinburgh deviate much from their type,
being nearly level for the first 9 or 10 hours of the 21st, and then suddenly
and irregularly rising. The Markree curve also, from 0 hour to 4 hours, runs
nearly level or with a slight descent, then rises by gentle successive swells
(through 0°066 inch) to a slight maximum at 19 hours, gently dips to a feeble
minimum at 21 hours, and then suddenly starts up with a bold rise for the
remainder of the term,
Kremsmiinster and Cadiz are exceptional to the general character, and for
once they offer considerable agreement with each other. Both descend toa
decided minimum between the 6th and 7th hour, rise to about their original
level at midnight, dip to a slight minimum between 14 and 15 hours, and
then rise again, the rise being sustained at Cadiz to the end, but at Krems-
miinster only to 19 hours, when another fall commences. The total range
-* Cadiz is 0°119, at Kremsmiinster 0°086, within the limits of the projected
ours.
Sept. 1838.—Markree, Halifax, Bristol Channel, Cambridge, London,
Greenwich, Ghent, Alost, Brussels, Louvain, Cadiz.
Markree stands in bold contrast with all the other curves of this term, It
sweeps down over a range of 0°264 from a maximum at 0 hour toa minimum
at 22 hours, with a very regular and free curve, while all the other curves,
except Cadiz, rise with a gentle ascent. None of the diurnal movements are
seen except the afternoon minimum, which is pretty conspicuous in most of
them, and in some exaggerated into an extensive depression extending over
the six or eight first hours of the afternoon (a feature, indeed, of no uncom-
mon occurrence). At Brussels the forenoon maximum of the 22nd is also
sensible.
The curves for Ghent and Louvain are not continued through the night.
So far as they go they preserve their parallelism with that of Brussels, and
offer the same eminently smooth character. At Alost this character and par-
allelism are again broken, precisely as in the June term, by an unexpected
descent of the barometer during the three hours before midnight. All these
eurves, as well as those for London, Greenwich and Cambridge, begin with
the depression already noticed, subsequently to which they reascend during
the rest of the series attaining a higher level, the total range in all being
nearly alike (0°165 inch). The curve for Cambridge, however, is materially
more irregular and fluctuating.
The curves for the Bristol Channel and Halifax manifest the same gene-
rally ascending character, the former throughout; the latter up to the 18th
hour, after which it redescends. Both are smooth curves and their total range
nearly alike, and somewhat less than in the cases of London, Brussels, &c.,
viz, 0°099.
_ Cadiz is again exceptional. Its curve offers on the whole a slight descent,
and a full and. somewhat violent development of the effects of diurnal oscil-
lation, in both maxima and both minima; beyond this no features worth re-
mark. In this term then the movements of the European atmosphere seem
to have affected three distinct and independent systems, Cadiz and Markree
being types of the two exterior, and the rest of the stations of the interior
stem.
ee 1838.—Halifax, London, Greenwich, Ghent, Alost, Brussels, Lou-
vain, Cadiz.
_ A generally descending, much undulated curve, for each station except
Cadiz. The undulations, however, are rather numerous and small than ab-
80 REPORT—1843,
rupt, and (except for stations very nearly adjoining) not identifiable with each
other. The Belgian range is the smallest (0°224), the London and Green-
wich larger (0°304:), and the Halifax greatest (0°457), supposing it continued
to the end at the same mean rate at which it breaks off at 19" 20™ (the term
not being completed).
Cadiz again contrasts itself strongly with all the more northerly stations.
Its curve offers a general and moderate ascent over a range of 0°132, form-
ing a line deeply indented by the very conspicuous effect of the two diurnal
minima and their intermediate maxima, which seem to have attained their
full development on this occasion. In other respects there is no peculiarity.
The curve too is much smoother as respects subordinate undulations than
any of the others, Brussels not excepted.
Having thus discussed seriatim the terms of our British and European
group, let us briefly review the principal results of our examination.
1. We have succeeded in tracing distinet barometric waves of many hun-
dreds of miles in breadth over the whole extent of Europe; that is to say, at
least over an area having Markree in Ireland, Cadiz in Spain, Parma in Italy,
and Kremsmiinster in Austria for its angular points. Not only the breadth
but the direction of the front, and the velocity of progress of such waves have
been clearly made out.
2. Besides these distinctly terminated waves, we have been able, if not to
trace the rate and law of progress, at least to render very evident the exist-
ence of undulatory movements of much greater amplitude, so great indeed
as far to exceed in dimension the area in question, and to require much more
time than the duration of a term series (36 hours) for their passage over, a
given locality. At the same time it must be recollected that the records of
every meteorologist bear ample testimony to this conclusion in the fact of
long-continued rises, falls and stations (both high and low) of the barometer,
continuing for many days or even weeks.
3. In Europe, Brussels is clearly entitled to be regarded as a point of com-
paratively gentle barometrical disturbance. Very deep waves, it is true, and
very extensive ones, ride over it; but with regard to smaller ones, it may be
regarded as in a certain sense a nodal point where irregularities are smoothed
down, and oscillatory movement in general is more or less checked ; and such
movements increase in amount as we recede from Brussels as a centre, espe-
cially towards the north-west, as far as Markree.
4. The diurnal oscillations are very conspicuous in single days’ observa-
tions hourly continued, this being rather the general rule than the exception.
In particular, the afternoon minimum (4 P.M.) stands forth as a prontinent
feature in almost all cases where there is not some violent barometric dis-
turbance.
5. But that to render them so conspicuous, it is by no means enough to
cast up arithmetically heights above and below a mean quantity for the day.
On the contrary, such a mode of proceeding has a powerful tendency to mask
and conceal them. A medium curve must be struck, iberd mani or libero
oculo, so as to represent, with the least possible amount of general curvature,
the whole day’s observations; and upon this curve the diurnal fluctuations
will usually appear as two principal indentations with corresponding inter-
mediate protuberances, the protuberance and indentation immediately pre-
ceding and following the hour of noon being by far the most conspicuously
and constantly visible.
6. Hanover offers barometric anomalies separating it from the Belgian
type (to which latter the south of England as well as Geneva belongs).
Possibly it is connected with a Scandinavian or Polish system. Edinburgh
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 81
is as remarkable for inequalities and abrupt fluctuations in its barometric
changes as Brussels is for the reverse. ‘Turin seems to be much affected by
its proximity to the Alps, which gives its barometric curves frequently a very
disjointed character. Between the Italian stations (Turin and Parma) and
the Spanish (Cadiz, Gibraltar, Tangier) no community of character and no
mutual dependence prevails. Cadiz, Gibraltar and Tangier are subject to an
anomalous rise and fall of the mercury between midnight and sunrise, which
interferes with and often counteracts and overcomes the regular tendency to
depression in that interval, a peculiarity which is probably owing to the proxi-
mity of the great radiating surface of the African deserts. At Tangier the
barometric fluctuations seem to be remarkably small. Markree is remark-
able for the boldness and freedom of contour in its barometric curves, and
the great range of their fluctuations compared with stations to the south-east
of it.
Asiatic group.
The only stations admitting of mutual comparison are those of the Indian
Peninsula, Mauritius and Van Diemen’s Land being too remote. Out of the
nine terms observed in any part of India also, four were only ebserved at one
station, and neither of the remaining five at more than two, and those in only
two instances the same. Under these circumstances we could not expect to
trace out the propagation of waves even were any great fluctuations included
in the series. It so happens, however, that in none of the terms, and in no
station (except Van Diemen’s Land) was this the case. ‘The chief interest,
therefore, in the discussion of this group consists in the information to be
- derived from the separate consideration of each station in respect of its baro-
metric character, as to the comparative smoothness or abruptness of its varia-
tion, and the extent and law of its diurnal oscillations. And these will be
found by no means devoid of interest, but on the contrary to furnish occa-
sion for some remarks of moment.
Mauritius —Owing to the indefatigable diligence of Captain Lloyd, late
Surveyor-General of this colony, we possess nearly a complete series for this
station (Sept. 1838 alone being wanting), and the observations having been
made half-hourly in every term, we are enabled to trace more minutely on
each occasion the progress of the barometric march. It appears to be ex-
tremely regular, a certain ¢repidation however frequently prevailing in the
rise and fall through the diurnal phases, which contrasts very remarkably with
the exceedingly smooth character of several of the curves at the Indian sta-
tions.
In all the Mauritius terms there is not one in which the diurnal maxima
and minima are not fairly and strikingly developed ; neither is there any one.
in which (laying out of consideration these phases) any material departure
from a mean of the whole day is observed. Such a state of things is highly
favourable for the exact determination of the elements of diurnal oscillation.
I have therefore assembled in the Table (Appendix B.) the observations on
all the terms reduced to 32° Fahr., and having taken the means for each hour,
projected them in a curve on a scale of one inch to the hour of time, and to
the hundredth of an inch barometric altitude. A straight line being then
drawn from the point commencing this curve to the point terminating it will
represent the mean march of the barometer during the 24 hours included. And
our object being only to represent fluctuations above and below such a mean,
this line has been taken as an abscissa (representing the level of 30°0000
inches), and from it, in the direction of the original ordinates, the altitudes
were read off (by which process all that remains of casual or non-periodical
movement is obviously eliminated), and thus have been obtained the follow-
1843. G
82 REPORT—1843,
ing series of numbers, representing the march of the barometer during an
average 24 hours at Mauritius.
Hour,| Altitude of || Hour,| Altitude of || Hour, | Altitude of || Hour, | Altitude of
M.T.| barometer. || m. T. | barometer. || M. T. | barometer. || m. T. | barometer.
inches. inches. inches. inches.
80°0000 6 29°9929 12 929'9859 18 30°0153
30:0098 7 99'9759 13 30°0007 19 30°0031
30°0164 8 29°9628 14 | 30°0137 20 | 29°9933
30°0207 9 29°9601 15 30°0237 PA | 29°9855
30°0180 10 29°9619 16 30°0291 q4 29°9829
80°0071 11 99°97 26 17 30°0248 93 29°9884
29°9929 12 929°9859 18 30°0153 94 30°0000
Aa f wwe ©
The epochs and values of the several maxima and minima, with the sums
of excursions on both sides of this our medial line, are hence deduced as
below :—
Epoch 35, 12" ..,. m! (minimum) .... 29°9601
10401 O ij Mb 30°0291
15, ABieaatawra on? » wet 29:9826
hit) Deis ‘sag ivr Nl? itn 800210
Sum of greater excursions M? —- m! = 0°0609
Sum of lesser excursions. . M! — m? = 0:0465
Caleutta—Two terms only are recorded for this station, or three if we
regard the mouth of the Hoogly as identical with it. The curve for the first
term (Dec. 1835) is not complete in all its hours, nevertheless such are its
singular smoothness and regularity, that it admits of the diurnal elements
being at once read off as follows, taking 30 inches for a mean altitude:
Epochs 3? 0™ gh 54m 15> 48™ Q1> 94m
Altitudes 29°945 30°030 29°979 30°054:
M? — m! = 0109 M! — m? = 0°051
The term of March 1836 is somewhat disturbed by casual fluctuations, never-
theless if similarly read off, after smoothing down its angles, it gives
M? — m! = 0135 M! —m? = 0:053
The Hoogly term gives for the same sums of excursions (Dec. 1836),
M? — m! = 0:096 M!— m? = 0:013
Dadoopoor,—Five terms are recorded from this station, which when pro-
jected, equalized and read off, give for the sums of the excursions due to diur-
nal oscillation respectively as follows :—
Sum of greater| Sum of lesser
Term. excursions. | excursions.
: inch. inch.
September 1835 ...... 0°106 0:033
Mareh 1836 ...... 0112 0°033
June 1836 ...... 0°138 0013
September 1836 ...... 07172 0°026
December 1836 ...... Or112 0:033
Mean ..... 0128 0:028
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 83
Bangalore.—If we may deduce a barometrical character from only two
recorded terms, this would seem to be a very peculiar station, its peculiarity
consisting in an all but perfect repose of the mercury, and the absence even
of any appreciable amount of diurnal oscillation. But of course no conclusion
can be rested on so small a basis, nor am I in possession of any meteorological
journals or recorded observations from which to institute further inquiry.
Cathmandu (Nepaul).—A very elevated station, the barometer standing
at 25°3 inches. ‘Three recorded terms only have come to hand, being those
for March, June and Sept. 1837. In all the diurnal oscillations are very
strongly marked. In that of March a temporary disturbance at the 6th hour
P.M., arising doubtless from a misreading of 071 inch, mars the regularity of
the curve, and if this be allowed for, the excursions run as follows :—
Sum of greatest | Sum of least
Term. excursions. excursions.
Siar uaernarTy merrier inch peri picorer
March TE3 7 es 0°107 0:080
June 1837. ;.... 0:084 0:084
September 1837 ...,.. 07152 0°026
Mean .,.,..| 0-114 0-063
From Sikkim (? Darjding), a Subhimalayan station, we have a single term,
that of March 1837. ‘This also is a very high station, the mercury standing
at 23:2. Its curve is smooth and flowing in an eminent degree, and the
diurnal oscillations quite as strongly marked as in any of the Indian stations,
the excursions being as follows :—
Sum of the greater 07114; sum of the lesser 0°048.
Asa contribution to our knowledge of the periodical movements of the atmo-
sphere at high levels, these possess no small interest in proportion to the pau-
city of recorded observations in such circumstances.
From Hobart Town and Port Arthur we have six terms. In all of them
the barometer was much and irregularly agitated; but as there is no station
within comparing distance, nor have any observations from ships at sea in
that region, simultaneously made, been received, it is impossible to ground
any conclusion on them, the casual disturbances being too great to admit of
mutual compensation in so moderate a number of terms.
In discussing the diurnal fluctuations for the several stations above, I have
said nothing about the epochs, except for Mauritius. In fact, these elements
are too delicate to be obtained with any degree of confidence or precision
otherwise than by a very much more extensive course of observation. How-
ever, it is evident that ber do not differ widely from the generally received
hours (45, 108, 168 and 22").
South Africa.
This group affords but three stations on land, viz. two at the Cape very
near together, and the other at Bathurst, far to the eastward, There are,
however, two excellent sets of observations by Captain Henning on board
the Windsor, within limits of comparison. The whole number of terms ob-
served iseleven. In all of them the barometric range was moderate. The sea
observations run nearly parallel to those at the Cape, but there is no prominent
feature which it is possible to seize capable of identifying any atmospheric
disturbance-in its progress from station to station, On the other hand, so far
G2
84 REPORT—1843.
from any accordance subsisting between the Cape and Bathurst, a tendency
to contrary movement is apparent, as will become evident by the comparison
of the changes in twenty-four corresponding hours at Feldhausen and Bathurst
as follows :—
T Change of barometer in | Change in 24 hours cor-
i 24 hours at Feldhausen. | responding at Bathurst.
inch. inch.
December 1835 ...... +0°011 — 0-289
March TSS6, sates. +0:047 +0138
June TSSG cee. —0:041* +0:023
September 1836 ...... —0°211 +0:077
March LS Siege deme +0:078 —0°157
June TESiar ccs —0°088 +0°032
September 1837 ...... +0°059 +0°077
December 1837 ...... +0°058 —0°262
These are all the terms in which there are corresponding observations, and
among them, three-fourths in number and all the most considerable in respect
of range, are cases of contrary movement. The fact is certainly remarkable,
and though it does not appear easy to refer it to any obvious cause, it seems
well worthy of further inquiry.
At Bathurst the diurnal oscillations are not well made out, which is no fault
of the observations or the observer, Mr. Morgan, whose care and assiduity in
the making and registering of meteorological observations are quite remark-
able and deserving every encomium. The contrary is the case at the Cape,
as the following comparison will show :-—
Sums of excursions at | Sums of excursions at
Term. Feldhausen. the observatory.
March i ks ST beta 0:023 0:043
June 1835.00. 0:050 0:041
December 1835 ...... 0°035 0:04.0 0:038 0:034:
March TSSG6i.c.3.¢ 0:049 0°026 0°04:4 0:035
June T8360 0 ssas3 0:061 0:007 0:025 0012
September 1836 ...... 0:049 0°044 0°042 0°051
December 1836 ...... 0072 0:021 0:059 0:020
March kee ay Romer 0:060 0:026 0:057 0:023
June | oR Wey ate 0:060 0:017 0:049 0:016
September 1837 ...... 0-057 | 0013... 0057, |) COLT
December 1837 ...... 0:052 0:041
ee | |
Means: cctvcccedsscversss4| Onan 0:029 0044: 0:026
0°044 0:026
Mean of both stations | 0°048 0:027
American Group.
The United States and Canada have furnished us with thirteen term-series
up to the end of 1838, observed more or less connectedly at eighteen stations,
* In this case the observatory has been compared, and there are, strictly speaking, only
twenty-two hours in each series which correspond,
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 85
viz. Quebec, Montreal, Gardiner, Burlington, William’s College, Albany,
Boston, Providence (Rhode Island), New Haven, Middletown, Western Reserve
College (Ohio), Flushing, New York, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Natchez, Wash-
ington, and St. Louis (Missouri). These stations form the main body of this
group, and the only one with which it is possible to deal connectedly. In
addition to these, as outlying points, five terms have been observed by Cap-
tain Owen and one by Mr. Lees at the Bahamas, and eight by Captains
Beechey and Belcher at various stations along the west coast of Mexico and
Guatemala down to Panama and the Gulf of Guayaquil. Had these terms
been observed simultaneously it might have been possible to connect them
with those of Bahama into a distinct West Indian group. But the utmost
amount of simultaneous terms which can be mustered in such a group is in
that of September 1836, in which a single series by Mr. Schomburgk in
British Guiana is recorded, forming with those of Captain Owen and Captain
Beechey a triangular group, having its angles at Guayaquil, Bahama and
Ohreala, an area far too extensive, and in which, on comparison of the
curves, nothing can be made out but a want of correspondence in every fea-
ture but the diurnal oscillations, which in all three are very conspicuously
marked. A single term at Sitka, in Norfolk Sound, on the N.W. coast of
America, observed by Captain Belcher, is equally incapable of being brought
into comparison with every other series. Its curve is remarkably flat and
even, rising with some degree of agitation towards the end of the term, while
all the observations in the United States indicate a sudden and rapid fall, ex-
tending over the same hours.
The greater part of the terms of the American group of the United States
and Canada have been carefully examined and discussed by Mr. Birt, whose
remarks (in his own words) I shall subjoin sertaéim, confining my own obser-
vations to points which he has not touched on, and to terms which are not
included in his notes.
North American Group.
December 1835.—This term affords only two series—from Albany and
Montreal, the curves of which, with a good deal of irregularity, maintain a
coarse parallelism and agree in a tendency to rise at the end, which is much
more decided at the latter than at the former station.
’ For the terms of 1836 and 1837, and March 1338, Mr. Birt has drawn out
the following Table, which exhibits the barometric ranges during 27 and 37
hours respectively, with a view to the elucidation of the law of oscillation as
referred to centres of greatest and least excursion. As regards this subject
I may remark generally, that the stations, Montreal, Quebec and New York,
but most especially the last, appear remarkable for the smoothness of their
barometric curves as contrasted with the rest; but this is in great measure
owing to the observations at these stations having been made at larger inter-
vals, 2, 3, and often 4 hours.
I have completed the table for the remainder of 1838.
“ Tabular View of the Ranges of the Barometer for 27 and 37 hourly obser-
vations at the Equinoxes and Solstices in the United States, during the
years 1836, 1837, and part of 1838.
Storm Curves. March and December 1836.
March 1836. ya eat e December 1836. 2 PSM
Anterior or Eastern New York..... secee “837 1935
portion of storm. New Haven .......- ‘966 1:007
Montreal .......... ‘241 ‘285 | Flushing .......... 1-039 1:042
86 REPORT—1843.
Storm Curves.
March 1836. Dia ks
Albanyacsi. cea oc sa) ‘387 °466
Flushing .......5.. ‘397 447
Middletown ........ 496 °541
Extent of oscillation
from North to South. °185 °256
Posterior or Western
portion of storm.
CMCINGAUL 2. aie. cake 334 +351
March and December 1846.
December 1836. Dias ich pe
Albany ......400..3 1:147 1:173
Montreal sacdaawntel
Quechee viaisisc das ais 1613 1613
Extent of oscillation
from South to North
nearly in the same
meridian ty
Gardiner, Maine, 1 19"
east of Albany .
"776 678
“934 1:014
“ The cause of the increase of oscillation towards points of greatest oscilla-
tion in the centres of the storms is very apparent, namely the depression to-
wards the centres of the storms producing in the surfaces of the atmosphere
over them a funnel-shaped character.
“ Complete range at New York during the storm of December from
the SROWMETS OMY DE eds ee ke Reece ee ceee ss WEL Smee 942
PRE, BANG Ab CAOCUCO es a'. Wd oc wtle cis gs cee ni eek bees sesh nace 1°625
Difference of range between the two stations ........ <a sttrey Lae 683
“ June and September 1836.
June 1836.
A meridian passing through Mon-
treal, the point of least oscillation in
the series, gives the greatest increase
of oscillation on the west side, reject-
ing Quebec, as the hours are not con-
tinuous.
Dish Bie
Qtievet S73 eS 047 ‘078
Montreal .... “050 ‘072
West of Montreal. .
Albany .. ee 195 161
Flushing it eae PFT? MLS 166
Baltimore .......... =a he L
Extent of oscillation
from North to West
GF RGnte 3,588 125 +109
East of Montreal ....
William’s College.... 117 °117
Middletown ........ "133 “163
Extent of oscillation
from North to East
OL SOULE. 25 24 ted ‘083 091
(N.B. The observations at New
York do not extend over twenty-
seven complete hours.)
September 1836. 27.0" 87.
New Haven ..... Far Abas © (0 pu ad Noy
Middletown ........ NOM Tro
Flushing .. ra ick pte ds gpa cz |
*William’s College Seal 2 ag tg
*Gardiner, Maine. . "155 “200
Albany ....... sedee 7 *TTQ9VR32
Montréakiws ts cavare. ‘273 +336
Extent of oscillation
from South to North *175 °174
New York........5. 067 215
Burlington.......... 149 °218
The above two stations rejected as
the hours are not continuous.
Cincinnati not a por-
tion of the system.. ‘081 ‘141
The three stations, New Haven,
Middletown and Flushing, are not
placed above according to their rela-
tive positions; the discrepancies
would probably disappear if the sta-
tions were sufficiently numerous as
to allow of the observations being so
arranged that the ranges might be
exhibited as proceeding from a point
of greatest oscillation on the radii of
a circle.
* Gardiner, Maine, being ciitdabnly to the east of William’s College, tie similarity of
range at the two stations.is interesting.
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 87
“ March and June 1837.
March 1837. Bias) B7i June 1837. Fall. Rise.
Flushing ....... «+s °390 392 | William’s College.... 050 +229
WAWDADY. 3 is 0 2 os ae ‘227 *274 | Middletown . see *196: “802
Montreal ..... tease 195 °208 | Gardiner, Maine .... +124 +135
Decrease of oscillation Boghon! ss bs eyes wie aivis "114 +256
from Flushing to Middletown ........ ‘126 ‘302
Montreal... 201% "195 *184 | Flushing .......... 7045 +266
Flushing. ....-..6. . ‘390 °392 | New Haven ........ "100 +285
‘ao =e ts ts "197 244 | Middletown ........ 126 :302
ecrease of oscillation
; The above are so arranged as to
from Flushing to : ; exhibit the descents and ascents of
BLOSEOD, |». 4)5,0\ia. (0/4010 193 +148
the barometer at the stations named.
It will be seen that the ascents are considerably greater than the descents,
and it is probable that the summit of the barometric undulation was not
attained at the respective stations at the conclusion of the observations.
*‘ September and December 1837.
September 1837. Ps Oe I December 1837. i a 6
Montreal ......... . 353 483 St. Louis ........5. "365 °483
William’s College.... +249 ‘439 | Western R. College .. *292 *407
Gardiner, Maine .... ‘221 ‘336 | New York.......... "197. “Zh
Decrease of oscillation Fusing sank, o> 196 +265
from Montreal .... °132 °147 | Middletown? ...... ‘196 ‘255
Boston .........06. "252, "3G0 |, Boston . 4. weet 6nd de (ZOD, B45
Providence ........ 204 :287 | Quebec........+4 .. ‘190 °288
Decrease of oscillation Gardiner, Maine .... °208 *208
from Boston...... ‘048 ‘073
Middletown ........ 292 *381
New Hayen .......» 277 °372
Bluswing. .. 4... 5... 256 349
New York......... “2 "oa7
Decrease of Sata ta
from Middletown .. ‘042 -044
“ Mareh and June 1838.
March 1838. gk June 1838. (H.) ae
St. Louis ........ ‘295 °295 | Western R. College.. 046 ‘087
Cincinnati........ ‘2po. 4209) | Grardiner®.') 2's 3). dent ShyAe” 3B
Western R. College -139 °165 | Boston ............ "175 ; °222
Decrease of oscillation Burlington.......... 2a y, “ALO
from St. Louis .... °*156 °130 | Quebec............ (200. «(oom
‘STL Rn mY 3 NGG” a
Burlington Ve fk "176 °331
( New York... . 364 *532
Flushing ....... a 37D) O14
New Haven ...... 384-530
Middletown ...... ‘383 °553
OSTON on a cee .. ‘410 “576
Gardiner, Maine .. °434 °599
Extent of oscillation
from West to East.. -070 °085
* This range supposes an erroneous reading of ‘1 in one of the hours, which otherwise is
quite anomalous.
88 REPORT—1843.
“ September and December 1838.
September 1838. (H.) 27. 37. December 1838. (H.) 27. 37.
Western R. College... °144 *194 | Western R. College.. +293 °343
Flushing ......... «, 165,/2192 ) Flushing. .... . ..<-.< 9 "185 203
Gardiner (.... .. sugitligentfou | Burlington ........ “L7bghi6
Gardiner «.. <j4)0\/-)e)1, SOWB LIS
“ Table of the Mean Altitudes of Barometer.
1836. | 1837. 1838.
March.| June. | Sept. Dec. | March. | June. | Sept. Dec. || March.
Montreal* .......+.... 29-694 |29-868 |29-946 29-951 |29-478 |30-070 |29-969 |'30-109
Albany ........-eee0e+ 29-785 |29-894 |30-086 29°974
William’s College ...|......... 29297 |29:322 | sss. 28795 |29-398
Middletown .......+. 29°614 |29°641 |29-815 | ., — |l..veeeeee 29-250 |29-962 |29-634 ||29-875
ING WOTIAVEN venecesctlicravenes|anesorect 307143 | 2S |... 29-584 |30°336 |......06 30°253
Flushing ....essesseeees 29-658 |29:799 |30:136| 2S ||29°864 |29-606 [30-283 |29-969 | 30-183
Deny OER este tcsscteanmences 29-974 |30°162 | 2H |].....-eeclecosesces 30°353 |30:069 ||30°247
Baltimore ........0000}-eeceeees 29-710 Og
Cincinnati ............ 29°267 |....0000 29300 | oF |leveeevee|eeeeteee|ereeesaselensersnes 29°389
Western R, College..|.......0.|-seseseee|seseeeees ie | Geceereed pee pee 28°762 |28-799
Gardiner, Maine......|..esesse-|esereeees SULOUE. irs clu aller oxdaast 29-455 30-258 |29-929 30:164
MBGSUDIL Navencaeen tases dloscceess+|teevanaea| seer gees 30-203 |29-542 |30-360 |29-986 | 30-256
RPOVIG ONCE NS. cckesncelitescttee lsc coogeerlsestrecesls - Allccsaseves|[sareecess 30°135
March 1836.—Montreal, Albany, Flushing, Middletown, Cincinnati,
Bahama, St. Catherine’s Island.
(H.) Great contrast between the first mentioned four stations and the last.
The curves of the former set all descend rapidly, the descent for Montreal
being smooth, and undulated only by the very evident diurnal oscillations ;
the others are all more or less irregular, but with no distinct correspondence
in the features of their irregularity. The Cincinnati curve, on the other hand,
ascends rapidly but smoothly, and the diurnal phases are distinctly seen in-
denting its slope. In the Bahama curve the diurnal phases are extremely
prominent; the sum of the greater excursions being 0°090 and of the lesser
0-069, reckoned from a line of medium slope. At St. Catherine's Island a
similar remark applies, the sums of the excursions from a medial line of de-
scent being respectively 0:090 and 0:05].
(B.) In this series the variations of the barometer are evidently due to a
storm; the four stations, Montreal to Middletown, being nearly on the same
meridian. The rising curve at Cincinnati doubtless arises from the western
half of the storm passing over that station, while the eastern traversed the
meridian of Albany. The Bahamas were entirely removed from its influence.
The increase of oscillation in this case, or rather the decrease of oscillation
from a central point of greatest oscillation, arises from the depression towards
the centre of a rotatory storm.
June 1836.—Quebec, Montreal, William’s College, Albany, Middletown,
Flushing, New York, Baltimore, Bahama.
(H.) The curves for Quebec and New York are extremely remarkable for
the perfect smoothness of their gentle upward slope, unbroken by any undu-
lation whatever. Those of William’s College, and especially Albany, on the
contrary, are abruptly agitated, and the swells and falls coincide with the
* At Quebec, owing to the observations being for the most part at intervals of 4 hours, the
means are not comparable with them.
Ce ees
Sissy
=
i
ie ied
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 89
epochs and directions of the diurnal phases. Middletown and Flushing
are intermediate in character. The Baltimore curve is very regular and
shows the diurnal phases very distinctly, though not extensive. At Ba-
hama the diurnal oscillations are obliterated at the beginning and end of
the series, a uniform and perfect level being maintained from 14 hours to 24
hours.
(B.) This group, with the exception of the Bahamas, presents a series of
curves evidently forming a system of oscillations, the area extending over
21' of longitude and 7° 31! of latitude ; this area, on which most of the Ame-
rican stations are situated, appears from the succeeding observations to have
presented the most complete systems of oscillations.
(B.) In proceeding from north to south there appears to be some irregu-
larity in the increase, but by arranging the stations as in the Table*, it will
be seen that there is a gradual increase on each side of the meridian of Mon-
treal.
September 1836.—Montreal, Burlington, Albany, Gardiner, William’s
College, New York, Flushing, Middletown, New Haven, Cincinnati, Bahama,
Ohreala, Guayaquil.
(H.) All the curves of the first nine stations are on the whole nearly level,
with undecided fluctuations, referable chiefly to diurnal oscillation, until about
the 20th or Z1st hour of September 21, when they begin to dip downwards.
The Cincinnati curve runs level, in three distinct stages of level, beginning
and terminating at about 0:07 inch higher than its middle portion; this,
however, is merely an effect of the periodical oscillations, in which the nightly
maximum and morning minimum are blended and obliterated.
The smoothest. curve in this term is that of Gardiner. Middletown and
New Haven are also smooth. Albany is most broken (chiefly in the evening),
which seems to be its general character. Of the West Indian curves I have
already spoken.
(B.) This sheet exhibits a well-marked and very interesting group, occu-
pying nearly the same geographical area already noticed, namely from New
York on the west to Gardiner, Maine on the east, the northern and southern
boundaries being respectively Montreal and Flushing. The general similarity
of these curves is very apparent also, the double curve indicating a diurnal
oscillation at each of the stations; the increase of oscillation is also distinctly
marked proceeding towards the north.
(B.) The intermediate elevations and depressions offer very interesting
matter for remark, the greatest development of them is at Flushing. At
Montreal, the station of greatest oscillation, they have nearly disappeared.
The intermediate curves are generally apparent when the oscillation is less
than ‘100. At Cincinnati, to which the system did not extend, the extent of
oscillation was ‘031 for 27 and *141 for 37 observations; here the curve was
simple.
(B.) The falls at the latter portions of the curves are much steeper than
those at the anterior portions; the falls at New York and Flushing are less
steep than the others.
December 1836.—Quebec, Montreal, Albany, Flushing, New Haven, New
_ York, Gardiner, Bahama.
(H.) This term exhibits finely the barometric features and local progress
of astorm. The barometric ranges will be found in the general table. The
greatest intensity of the storm seems to have prevailed at Quebec, M ontreal,
* Vide the Synoptic Table at the commencement of the American group.
90 REPORT—1843.
and New York. The greatest depression of the barometer at the several sta-
tions, where the minimum was within the limits of the term, took place at the
hours following of December 21 (mean time at each station).
Quebec...... 9 A.M. $% Flushing ...... 0 Noon.
Montreal .... 9 A.M. New Haven.... 1 P.M.
New. York) *10*aim. £2 Gardiner ...... 5 P.M.
Albany 2. i". TTA.
At Montreal and Quebec the rise of the barometer from its greatest de-
pression was singularly steady and unbroken by any convulsive movements.
At Quebec, indeed, this might be ascribed to the system of 4-hourly obser-
vation pursued, but not so for Montreal, where the observations were hourly.
At New Haven, New York, and Flushing also, the same remark applies with
almost equal force; this places in a strong light the peculiarity of Albany, to
which I have before alluded, viz. the broken and abrupt character of its
curves; for in this instance its curve is most remarkably zigzaged over the
whole of its upward slope.
The following Table, exhibiting the movements of the barometer at Quebec
and New York, before as well as during the storm, has been constructed by
Mr. Birt from its records.
(B) Table of Barometric Altitudes at New York and Quebec during the storm
of December 20, 21 and 22, 1836, reduced to a temperature of $2° Fahr.
Day. Hour. New York. | Quebec. || Day. Hour. New York. | Quebec.
19. 10 p.m. | 30°689 Gli !- Noone 84 ose Tyee 28°762
90.} 6 A.M. ‘600 2 P.M. “779
10 A.M. 627 3 PiMer |i ee 29'082
Noon ON 282) 1390387 6 P.M. | 30°036 311
2 P.M. “44.5 OPM a A “467
Si Pie I. Pere "314 10 BM. "275
6 P.M. "342 257 Midnight. |........| °726
Bhp) ae 168 || 22. SANS ES. Be "9392
10 p.m. "183 6 A.M. “521 |30°135
Whdiniielite (2.32.8 ‘080 Ce had eich tl ‘295
A 0 a 29°809 10 A.M. “616 :
6a.M. | 29°793 *525 Noon) Fos. 375
EAP PAE Ser egos 2 P.M. +570
10 A.M. ‘685 6 P.M. "620
(H.) This storm was not felt at Bahama, the curve for which during this
term exhibits a state of tranquillity, the diurnal phases only being observable
and very well developed. ;
(B.) Mr. Redfield remarks, that “ the period allotted for the observations
includes, on this occasion, a portion of an extensive inland storm of marked
character and rapid development ;” at nearly all the stations the latter portion
only was observed ; the progressive character of the storm is very apparent
from the curves. In consequence of the very extensive range of the barometer
the scale is half of that which is employed for the other projections, namely
75 of the larger divisions = °1.
(B.) The observations at New York and Quebec include, at intervals of 3
hie!
ae -
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 91]
and 4 hours, the almost complete barometric development of the storm. I
have accordingly projected the two curves on an additional sheet scale 1+ of
the larger divisions =*i. The immense and rapid fall at Quebec, at the
middle of the storm, as compared with the phenomena presented at New
York at the same time, is interesting; also the shoulders at New York at
10 a.m. of the 20th, and at 10 a.m. of the 22nd, exhibiting a wave at the
circumference of the funnel.
(B.) In comparing the ranges, I have taken the range at New York from
the shoulders only, as the observations at Quebec do not include them.
March 1837.—Boston, Flushing, Albany, Montreal, Bahama, Magnetic
Island.
(H.) The observations at Magnetic Island break off at midnight of the
Q1st. All the other curves, Bahama included, descend, but with different
rapidities and degrees of irregularity.
(H.) The Boston curve is very smooth (hourly observations). It con-
tinues nearly level till 11 p.m., then dips gracefully to a minimum at 25 hours
(1 hour, March 22nd). Its range within the 26 projected hours is 0°192.
(H.) The Flushing and Albany curves are much and abruptly broken,
but exhibit no correspondence in their zigzags. Both attain minima at the
25th hour. ‘Their ranges, as above, are 0°387 and 0:225.
(H.) The Montreal curve exhibits the diurnal oscillations superposed on
a regular line of descending slope, the evening maximums being somewhat
broken. In other respects the curve is very smooth. The general slope is
rectilinear and less steep than in the others, viz. at the average rate of 0°145
in 24 hours.
(H.) The Bahama curve is still less steep, sloping at the average rate of
0°13 in 24 hours. Its diurnal fluctuations, though very visible, are not nor-
mally developed.
(B.) Among the curves on this sheet that were obtained from the eastern
ee of the United States, there is a general similarity. It is probable they
ormed part of a system of oscillation having a point of greatest oscillation.
The curve obtained at Flushing exhibits the greatest oscillation, but as there
are no observations south or south-west of this station it cannot be considered
as the point of greatest oscillation. Observations from the south-east and
south on the Atlantic would have been very interesting at this term.
June 1837.—Quebec, Montreal, Burlington, Gardiner, Boston, Middletown,
New Haven, Wiilliam’s College, Flushing, Natchez, Washington (incom-
plete).
ait) The curves of this term may be classed in two systems, the first con-
sisting of those of Quebec, Montreal and Burlington; the second, of all the
rest. The character of the first class is a general tendency to ascent, inter-
rupted somewhat irregularly by the diurnal phases, in which the morning
minimum is anticipated by two or three hours, a particular, however, which
cannot be traced at Quebec, the observations having been discontinued from
midnight till 6 a.m.
The other stations may be divided into subclasses, graduating into one
another; those which exhibit a strong maximum in the earlier and a strong
minimum in the later hours of the projected series (Gardiner and Boston) ;
those in which this maximum merges in the maximum preceding the noon of
June 21, and is separated from the strong characteristic minimum by 8 or 10
hours of level, the said minimum itself beginning at an earlier epoch (at about
2 or 3 a.m., as Middletown, New Haven, William’s College); and lastly, those
in which no such characteristic maximum can at all be traced, and in which
92 REPORT—1843.
the minimum assumes the character of a flat and gentle depression, coming
on progressively earlier and earlier in the series (as at Flushing, Natchez and
Washington).
(H.) In all these but Natchez and Washington, the curve, after the cha-
racteristic minimum, rises very rapidly, but at Natchez this rise does not take
place. At Washington the series terminates at 7 p.M. on the 21st, so that it
remains undecided what course the curve takes in the later hours.
(B.) This sheet exhibits a well-marked and prominent group of similar
curves, which occupies an extent of longitude from Flushing to Gardiner,
Maine = 19 minutes. The depression of the curve at each station is one
of the most interesting features. By inspecting the Table of Ranges it
will be seen that the greatest oscillation was observed at Middletown, and
it appears probable that the oscillations decreased on radii from this point. I
have endeavoured to exhibit this by terminating each set of ranges with the
range at Middletown. It is, however, a matter of regret that the observa-
tions were not more numerous by which this interesting point might have
been more strikingly illustrated. The descents as well as the ascents of the
curves increase towards Middletown, with the exception of the curve at Gar-
diner: this curve appears to partake of the character of the curve obtained
at Montreal in its anterior portion. The curve at Montreal evidently does
not belong to this system.
(B.) The order of time in which the lowest altitudes of the barometer at
the several stations were observed, is as under :—
Plishing’ Ts ees LIBEL «ee SO POM.
New Haven ........ 22nd .... 1 A.M.
William’s College.... 22nd .... 2 A.M.
Middletown ........ 22nd .... 5 a.m.? (series broken.)
GeO a We eles p= 22nd .... 6 A.M.
MSGINWIOD stare aie ayes 22nd ....10 A.M.
(B.) The curves to the north of this group, namely, those obtained at
Quebec and Montreal, are decidedly different, and that obtained at Natchez
evidently belongs to a different system. The oscillation at this station being
under ‘100, exhibits the diurnal oscillation.
(H.) Lincline to regard both Natchez and Washington as belonging to
this system, or at least on the verge of it; and if so, the minima there observed
(though very feebly marked) ought to be added to the above Table, thus
WateHezi wee ccs ste att a es OTe sl
Washington ........ ais...) O Pei
Sept. 1887.—Providence, Boston, Gardiner, Burlington, Flushing, New
York, New Haven, Middletown, William’s College, Montreal—Sitka. Also
a few hours of the end of the term at Quebec.
(H.) Sitka is entirely disconnected and has already been sufficiently cha-
racterized. All the other stations exhibit descending curves, and in all, the
final rate of descent is much more rapid than the initial, so that they obviously
belong to one system.
(H.) The curves in this term are generally smooth, especially those for
Providence, Boston, Flushing, New York and New Haven. Traces of the di-
urnal oscillations prevail in most of them, though a good deal distorted in
their epochs. The Montreal is the only curve which (abstraction made of
these) offers much undulation. Jn this the descent is suspended during all
the interval from 7 p.m. Sept. 21 to 2 a.m. Sept. 22, and replaced by a gentle
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 93
ascent, after which the rapid descent begins. Beyond this I have nothing to
add to Mr. Birt’s remarks which follow.
(B.) This group, which extends only from New York 1™ west to Gar-
diner, Maine 19™ east of Albany, exhibits a general agreement among the
curves, all of them descending. ‘The group, however, may be divided into
minor portions, in which different features are well marked. The three
flattest curves, especially in their anterior portions, were obtained at Provi-
dence, Boston and Gardiner. The curves at New York, New Haven and
Middletown, also agree tolerably well with each other, especially the two
last, New York agreeing more with Flushing, which connects as it were the
two minor groups. William’s College is nearly similar to the Middletown
group, and the curve at Montreal differs from the others mostly in the
depression at 6 and 7 p.m. Gardiner, Maine presents the nearest similarity
to it.
(B.) The curves in this sheet present a different phenomenon, inasmuch
as the increase of oscillation does not appear to be regular; but when we
separate the curves into groups, as above, we perceive it. Flushing appears
to be an exception. By including Flushing in the Middletown group, we
have stations exhibiting smaller ranges between those presenting larger; Wil-
liam’s College between Montreal and the New Haven or Middletown group ;
Providence between Middletown and Boston; and Gardiner nearly in the
same parallel with William’s College. This exhibition of smaller ranges in
connection with the minor groups of curves is highly interesting, exhibiting,
as the Middletown group does, the increase of oscillation towards that sta-
tion.
(B.) This group is perhaps one of the most interesting, particularly as
relates to the extent of oscillation at the several stations. By referring to
the Table of ranges for June and September 1836, it will be seen that the
oscillations at William’s College were less than those at the neighbouring
station, Albany. The mean altitude of the barometer is also less at William’s
College than at Albany.
(B.) On this occasion (Sept. 1837) the altitude of the barometer was
greater than on any other at all the stations except at Montreal, which ex-
hibited the greatest oscillation. By taking a similar view of these as of the
June observations, there appears to be three centres of oscillation, namely,
Montreal, Boston and Middletown. The oscillations are accordingly arranged
in this manner in the Table.
Dec. 1837.—St. Louis, Western Reserve College, New York, Flushing,
Quebec, Montreal, Middletown, Burlington, Boston, Gardiner, Bahama,
St. Blas.
(H.) All the curves for the above stations, in the order in which they are
here arranged, down to Boston inclusive, begin by descending to a minimum,
in the case of New York only coinciding in epoch (4 p.m.) with the afternoon
minimum; in all the others anticipating of it by 1, 2, or 3 hours, the times
being as follow :—
Burlington.... 1 p.m. 21st. BROST OM 16) Sieier Seas ins sain pein oe Baie
Middletown .. 1 P.M. Western Reserve Coll... 2 p.m.
St. Louis .... 1 pm. BYISHUD GS, ict arcieuninscaith ccoei ii Pehle
Quebec ...... 2 P.M. New York .........0204 4: PoMe
From this minimum they all rise, with more or less subordinate undulation,
and with degrees of rapidity corresponding to the order of succession of the
stations above set down. In the Boston, Burlington, New York and Flushing
94 REPORT—1843.
curves, the diurnal oscillations (and especially the maximum of the forenoon
of the 22nd) are strongly indented on the upward slope.
(H.) The curve for Gardiner is peculiar, and indicates some local disturb-
ance. In place of the minimum with which the others commence being of a
concave or basin-shaped form, this is deeply cuspidated, being formed by a
bold convex sweep, plunging down to an abrupt point at 5 hours mean time,
whence it immediately rises and slopes up in three distinct stages to the end.
The St. Blas curve has no resemblance to any of the rest, but offers a fine
specimen of diurnal oscillation boldly developed,
(B,) The curves on this sheet exhibit a greater extent of area over which
similar affections of the atmosphere were observed than any of the others.
From Western Reserve College (31™ west of Albany) to Boston (11™ east of
the same station), a group of similar curves is apparent; the depressions oc-
curring about 3 p.M., and the apices about 10 a.m.: 42™ of longitude appear
to be the extent of this group.
(B.) The ranges of the barometer from New York to Boston are nearly
similar (rejecting the 5 p.m. obseryation at Middletown, which appears to be
in error), For twenty-seven observations, Boston, the easternmost station,
exhibits the greatest range. For thirty-seven observations, Flushing exhibits
the greatest, the difference between this station and Boston being ‘022,
(B.) The curve at Gardiner, Maine, while exhibiting to a certain extent
similar features to the curves westward, does not belong exclusively to the
system. The range for twenty-seven observations is rather more than that
at Boston, but considerably less for thirty-seven. The anterior portion of
the curve as far as 5 p.m. is decidedly different from the preceding curves,
and the continuous portion of it after | p.m, also differs very materially.
(B.) The curve at St. Louis, while it generally agrees with the curves of
the Maine group during the hours projected on the sheet, differs from them
during the afternoon hours of the 22nd, being somewhat similar to Gardiner,
Maine.
March 1838.—Western Reserve College, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Montreal,
Burlington, New York, Flushing, Newhaven, Middletown, Boston, Gardiner ;
— Realejo. .
(H.) The Realejo curve is disconnected with the rest and incomplete; the
obseryations breaking off before the conclusion of the terms. Its general
form is a flat concavity, with its minimum at 5 p.m., Mar. 21.
The rest of the stations may be classed as follows ;—
A. B Cc
Gardiner. Burlington. St. Louis.
Boston. Moutreal. Cincinnati.
Middletown. Western Reserve College.
New Haven.
Flushing.
New York.
Group A. consists of eastern stations. Its curves rise steadily from the
first commencement of the observations at daybreak of the-21st to a sub-cul-
mination at about 1 a.m. of the 22nd (13 hours, 21st), whence they slightly
dip to the morning minimum about 15 hours or 16 hours, and rising again,
attain their absolute culmination at or about the regular epoch ofthe forenoon
maximum, viz, 22 hours (10 a.m., Mar. 22nd). They all run closely parallel
with exception of Boston and Gardiner, which manifest some irregularities
and abruptnesses,
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 95
(H,) Group B. of northern stations show a kind of transition state of the
curves. The true culmination comes on much earlier (at midnight between the
21st and 22nd), and the upward slope is much less steep, and shows signs of a
minimum having been attained shortly before the commencement of the term.
(H.) In the group C. this minimum comes clearly within the range of the
observations, but at very different hours, viz. for
St. Louis ,.......,..... at 3 P.M. M.T. at Station, 21st.
Cincinnati Seige 5) 4) pin © ay elk BM 6 ” ” ry) » ”
Western Reserve College., ,, 3 A.M., 3 5, 5 29nd.
(H.) The minimum in question for St. Louis, falling nearly on the regular
epoch of the afternoon minimum of the diurnal oscillations, is reinforced by it,
and is very decided and well rounded. At Cincinnati this has not been the
case; and a kind of struggle of tendencies seems to have taken place, marked
by a double depression and abrupt intermediate elevation, At Western Reserve
College the minimum we are tracing falling nearly on the gentler depression
of the regular morning minimum, and being accompanied with less general
movement of the mercury, forms a long fiat depression, ending in a gentle
and continued upward slope extending beyond the limits of the term.
(B.) This sheet presents three well-marked and distinct groups of curves
in the United States. The most prominent is that of the eastern states, ex-
tending from New York to Gardiner, Maine: here the apices occur about
the same hour, but the minimum altitudes of the barometer were not observed,
the first observation of each series being the lowest.
(B.) The next group, namely, Western Reserve College, Cincinnati and
St Louis, increases towards the west. The curves do not, however, present
that similarity noticed in the eastern curves: the marked difference between
the curves at Western Reserve College and New York indicates that the
western limit of the eastern group passed between these stations. Again, the
curve at Montreal being decidedly different from all the others, shows that
the eastern group did not extend so far north. Observations are wanted to
define the eastern limits of this group.
(B.) Upon reviewing the projections it appears that the area included within
a line passing from Baltimore north-east towards Quebec, inclosing Albany,
from thence south-east to Gardiner, and thence south-west along the coast,
passing New York and joining itself at Baltimore, and upon which are situ-
ated the following stations, Baltimore, Albany, William’s College, Burling-
ton, Montreal, Quebec, Gardiner, Maine, Boston, Providence, R. I., Middle-
town, New Haven, Flushing, L. I., and New York, is characterized by the most
complete systems of oscillation afforded by the group, the curves obtained at
the above-mentioned stations more or less agreeing with each other. There
are two principal lines of these stations, one from north to south, the other
from west to east, or rather from south-west to north-east.
North to South. South-west to North-east.
Montreal. oo - Baltimore.
Burlington. New York.
Albany. Flushing.
William’s College. New Haven.
New York. Middletown.
Flushing. Providence,
Boston.
Gardiner, Maine,
96 REPORT—1843.
(B.) In order to examine more particularly the nature of the increase of
oscillation, it will probably be requisite to obtain stations in other parts of
this area should future observations be undertaken.
(B.) With respect to the increase of oscillation, the following questions
have suggested themselves :—Do the oscillations increase from a single point
of least oscillation? or do they decrease from a single point of greatest oscil-
lation? The observations appear to indicate that they decrease from a single
point of greatest oscillation, particularly those of June 1837. On this occa-
sion the changes of the wind indicated the passage of a body of air in a state
of rotatory motion, although it appears difficult to suppose that this body
was of a cylindrical form, as the greatest depression of the barometer at each
of the stations occurred with a north-west wind, consequently the centre of
rotation must have been north-east of the station at the time: perhaps some
other form, a body the horizontal section of which is an ellipse, for instance,
may explain this. Upon the whole, the small number of stations over so large
an area, and these occurring on two lines only, is a matter of much regret, as
we can only at present obtain a glance at the affections of the atmosphere
over this vast space. Probably if the stations were more numerous, the cha-
racter of the decrease of oscillation from a point of greatest oscillation would
be distinctly marked.
June 1838.—Quebec, Burlington, Gardiner, Boston ;—Western Reserve
College.
(H.) The first four stations in their order form a group in which the pro-
gressive modifications of a fluctuation of considerable extent may be clearly
traced. It is best developed at Quebec (where fortunately the observations
of this term are for the most part hourly, or at furthest two-hourly), and con-
sists of a complete wave, with its lowest depression and culmination fully in
view, and both very decided and regularly formed, the epochs being as
below :-—
Lowest depression .. 5 p.M., 21st M.T., at Station.
Culmination $2 22279 AM. e22ndlss, sje
Amplitude ........ 0°355 in.
At Burlington the wave is flatter, and somewhat less regular. Epochs and
amplitude as below :—
Lowest depression............ 7 P.M., 21st.
Culmination ............ ...- O Noon, 22nd.
Amplitude of oscillation ...... 0°219 in.
At Gardiner the wave is still more flattened, and the culmination protracted
and rendered indistinct, so as to make it doubtful whether it falls fairly within
the series, or whether another rise commences :—
Lowest depression ...... 7 P.M., 21st.
Culiminationy ccicees en. 2 sy: 22nd-
Amplitude ...... eas oa OE Ee
Lastly, at Boston the wave is wholly obliterated, and we have a gently-de-
scending curve undulated only by the regular diurnal oscillations.
The curve of Western Reserve College offers a level, unbroken except by
the regular maxima and minima, which are however far from conspicuous in
their development.
Sept. 1838.—Gardiner, Flushing, Western Reserve College. .
(H.) Western Reserve College, on the moderately descending slope of its
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 97
curve, exhibits the diurnal oscillations strongly but rather irregularly. Both
minima, however, and both maxima are unequivocally made out.
The Flushing and Gardiner curves both slope downwards nearly at an
equal rate; the former very smoothly and gradually, the latter by four suc-
cessive stages with levels between. In the former the descent is continued to
the end of the term of 36 hours; in the latter a minimum is attained, and the
last two hours of the series exhibit the commencement of a rise. The terms
are too few for available comparison. f
Dec. 1838.—Gardiner, Burlington, Flushing, Western Reserve College ;
—Estero Real.
(H.) The Gardiner curve exhibits a series of small and gentle undulations,
superposed on a gentle and even convexity, culminating about 3 a.m., Dec. 22.
In that for Burlington, with the same general aspect, the convexity is more
considerable and its culmination occurs earlier, viz at 8 p.M., Dec. 21. Be-
fore the end of the series, however, a point of contrary flexure occurs, and a
minimum is attained at 2 p.m., Dec. 22, which is not the case at Gardiner.
At Flushing the swell, the contrary flexure and the minimum are all more
decided, giving a distinct culmination at 10 p.m., 21st, and point of greater
depression at 3 p.M., 22nd.
(H.) At Western Reserve College the whole series of thirty-six hours offers
only one great concavity, the lowest point occurring at 4 a.m. of the 22nd.
But we have no intermediate observations to connect this with the minima
observed in the later hours of the Burlington and Flushing series, and the
general aspect of the curves, as well as the much greater fluctuation, renders
such connexion improbable.
(H.) Estero Real is of course quite out of connexion with the above stations,
but its curve is remarkable as exhibiting the finest specimen of the diurnal
fluctuations of any we have yet passed in review. Its epochs and sums of
excursions are as follow in mean time:
m! M! m? M2
4b 10% 158 2124,
Sum of greater excursions.. (M* — m!) = 0°168.
Sum of lesser excursions .. (M!— m*) = 0:037.
Coneluding Remarks (H.).—Having now discussed in their order the ob-
servations of each term, and stated the conclusions which have presented them~
selves in the course of their examination, it may be expected that I should
express some opinion as to the utility of prosecuting a similar series of observa-
tions more extensively, and on the objects chiefly to be aimed at in so doing.
And here I must first. observe, that supposing any such continued series set on
foot, it would be highly desirable, by previous communication ana concert, to
secure a multitude of cooperators on chosen lines of connexion, so as to obtain,
at least for those stations, more regularly continued series of terms than those
which are comprised in our list, and to narrow in some degree the field of in-
quiry by limiting it (as 1 have been compelled to do) to some distinct point of
meteorology, such as the tracing of atmospheric waves and the determination
of the coefficients of the diurnal periods. To the latter point the hourly system
of observation alone is applicable, and monthly series (on the 21st of each
month) of such observations from a vast number of stations in which abso-
lutely nothing else was set down than the hourly march of the barometer
for twenty-five consecutive hours (so as to begin and conclude the twenty-four
hours with an observation), would in itself, if continued for a few years, leave
1843, H
98 REPORT—1843.
nothing to be desired on this important head. I need not insist on each ob-
server reducing his own observations. The time is arrived in meteorology
wher unreduced observations (at least barometrical ones) can no longer be
tolerated, and must henceforward (except at very peculiar stations) be con-
sidered as not having been made, The tables for the purpose are in every
one’s possession who can be considered competent to use the barometer sci-
entifically ; and if the correction be applied at once at the time of reading off,
the trouble is so subdivided as to be reduced almost to nothing, It should,
however, be remembered by all who may undertake such obseryations, that
unless made at each hour of the twenty-five and at the exact hours, a sevies
loses much of its yalue; and if two or more hours he deficient, it is hardly
worth using, as its comparability with others ceases. We haye seen, from
the instance of Mauritius (and the remark applies to most inter-tropical sta-
tions), that from twelye to sixteen unexceptionable series of the kind in
question suffice to afford a perfect solution of the problem of the diurnal
moyements wlien mean quantities only are concerned ; and in all probability
three or four years’ continuance of monthly terms would lead to a knowledge
of the annually periodic variations in their coetticients. For such an object,
dew-points, clouds, temperatures (other than needed to reduce the barometer
to the freezing standard), and even winds, might be pretermitted, though I am
far from advising their neglect,
As regards, however, the exceedingly interesting subject of the atmospherie¢
waves, it is right I should observe that, without setting on foot (except with
special views and in highly civilized localities) any express series of observa-
tions, but simply by comparing and reducing what already stand on record,
—or even by projecting them unreduced, where great undulations only are
to be traced,—the way lies open to most yaluable conclusions. The fluetua-
tions we have been able to trace by projecting the term observations, are
those only whose total duration of rise and fall is comprised within or does
not much exceed the twenty-four or thirty-six hours over which the term
extends. But these are by no means those which either theoretically or in-
deed practically speaking are to be regarded as most important. I have the
pleasure to lay before the Section specimens of barometric projections by
Mr. Birt, laid down from his own observation, in which the interval between
two successive maxima of pressure occupied in the one case seventeen days
without any intervening maximum; in another, a similar period with two
subordinate maxima interposed ; and another where a beautifully symmetrical
wave of an extremely remarkable character occupied thirteen days for its
complete rise and fall. [See curves designated as ‘‘ Barometric Waves,”
respectively annexed. Plates I. and II. ]
For such objects (as before observed) we need not travel beyond existing
records. In the records of our own magnetic and meteorological observa-
tories, and those which stand in correspondence with them throughout the
world, we have ample materials ; and when dealing with undulations of such
extent, it is by no means a visionary speculation to consider the possibility of
tracing them over the whole of our globe; nay, perhaps of obtaining evidence
of their performing, tide-like, two or more revolutions round its surface. And
although the pressure of other avocations will (unfortunately perhaps for
myself ) entirely preclude my taking any further personal share in this most
interesting inquiry, Iam authorized by Mr. Birt to state, that should it be the
pleasure of the British Association to intrust the subject to his inquiries by
appointing him a committee for that purpose, he is prepared to pursue it if
provided with a moderate grant to clear unavoidable expense,
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, 99
Before concluding this report it may not be irrelevant to add a few words
on the subject of the winds generally as connected with barometrical move-
ments, In the mode in which I have been accustomed to consider the sub-
ject, the winds may be divided into two classes,—winds of translation and
winds of oscillation ; nearly in the way in which the movements of the ocean
may be divided into oceanic currents and tide-streams, and these again (re~
garded as the result of oscillatory movements) may be referred to the general
laws which regulate the molecular movements of water in contact with the
bottom of the sea, when under the influence of undulatory agitation, The
trade-winds and greater aerial currents of a similar character, to which the
name of monsoons is given, are winds of translation. They have a distinct ba-
rometrical origin, in the diminution of pressure in approaching the equator,
caused by the expansion of the equatorial atmosphere and the overflowing of
the upper strata outwards towards the poles. But this cause is not oscilla-
tory but permanent. Monsoons also arise in the same way ; from local heat-
ing and cooling periodically renewed, it is true; but in long periods of six
months in duration, so as to give rise to steady currents. With such winds
the present research has little connexion, except in so far as their powerful
influence mixes with and masks the effect of the other class of winds,—those
which arise from barometric oscillation, and which are connected with such
oscillation in a more direct and intimate manner. The oscillations themselyes
perhaps take their rise in local and temporary causes prevailing over great
areas simultaneously, the principal no doubt depending on the prevalence of
cloud or clear sky, rain, or dryness over great tracts for several days or weeks
in succession, But once produced, and an extensive atmospheric undulatio2
once propagated, a wind or system of winds dependent on such undulation ne-
cessarily arises also. Every wave-like movement in a fluid (see Weber’s ‘ Wel-
lenlehre’) consists of two distinct things, an advancing form and a molecular
movement, which latter consists in a two-fold motion of each particle, vertical
and horizontal. Laying aside at present the consideration of the vertical
movement (which belongs only to the strata not in contact with the ground,
and with which probably many interesting particulars respecting the forma-
tion and dispersion of clouds, the precipitation of rain, and the generation of
lightning are connected), those strata which are in immediate contact with
the ground, in obedience to the general laws of fluid movement, have their
vertical movement zero and their horizontal a maximum, and for the most
part (in periodical waves) alternately progressive and retrogressive.
Now, the advancing form is indicated to us by the barometer, the mole-
eular movement by the wind, and between these two phznomena there sub-
sists of necessity a close and purely dynamical connexion. And it would
be no small meteorological discovery if, by the study of the characters and
progress of barometrical fluctuations, we could either make out any law of
the greater ones which would enable us even roughly to predict them, or any
peculiarity in their physiognomy by which we could recognize them in their
earlier stages, as by this we might possibly be led to the prediction of great
storms.
Everybody must have remarked the sudden reversion of wind which often
accompanies short and brisk storms accompanied with thunder and lightning
do not now speak of the great so-called “revolving” gales). This phe-
nomenon I consider as yuite a case in point. But the horizontal motion of
a particle of air in contact with the earth’s surface need not be a straight
line or even a returning curve. It would be the former only in the case of a
straight, cylindriform wave once passing or periodically repeated ; it would
be the latter in the case of an oscillatory movement revolving round a node
H2
100 REPORT—1843.
in the way in which Mr. Whewell has proved the tide-wave to do round cer-
tain definite points in the Channel. Now it és a fact, which has of late been
a good deal insisted upon, viz. that in certain stations the winds do revolve in
one uniform direction. The vane, for example, at Greenwich (as I am in-
formed by the Astronomer Royal) makes five revolutions per annum in one
uniform direction. May not this phenomenon, which, I confess, offers
otherwise some difficulty of conception, be in effect an indication of some
such atmospheric node, where a line perpendicular to the strata of the atmo-
sphere may be regarded as describing a conical surface round the true verti-
eal? If it be true (as the discussion of the term-observations has Jed to sus-
pect) that Brussels is in effect such a nodal point, the examination in this
view of its “ Wind-Rose” would be interesting.
On the subject of “revolving” storms I am not fully prepared to speak ;
but there is certainly one point of view in which some of the principal of
their phenomena would seem capable of explanation in this way of conceiving
winds of oscillation, and in which they would become traced up, not to “ fun-
nel-shaped revolving depressions” in the nature of waterspouts, but simply to
the crossing of two large long waves running in different directions thus :—
where A A! A" represent the progress of one wave, B B! B" that of the
other, and ¢ ¢’ ¢’ that of the tornado made by their intersection. The way in
which a rotary movement in an ellipse or circle, or in some other partly oval
and partly rectilinear figure, may result from the combination of two recti-
linear movements of advance and recess, will easily be understood by the
analogy of the circular and elliptic polarization of light, where rectilinear
movements of the ethereal molecules are conceived to be similarly combined.
Some features in such storms are strongly in harmony with this view, viz.
the fact that in them the direction of the wind at a given locality never
makes more than one rotation, and not always that; and that in the central
line of the storm’s progress there is a simple and sudden reversal of direction.
On the other hand, it must not be concealed that some features militate
against it; for instance, the fact that such gales are stated always to “ re-
volve” in one direction, whereas on this view of their origin the changes of
wind ought to be in opposite directions on opposite sides of the medial line.
But for the present it must suffice to have pointed out a mode of considering
the subject of at least certain sorts of winds which, being in the nature of a
vera causa, resulting from dynamical considerations perfectly general and in-
defeasible, cannot be without some influence, the only question being that
of amount.
Fifty-five pounds of the original grant of 1007. have been expended: should
the Association order the printing of this report, a portion of the remainder
may be applied to cover the expense of engraving or lithographing the curves
above noticed and accompanying this report, expressing Mr. Birt’s observed
waves. ‘The publication of all the projected term-curves would incur a more
serious additional expense without a corresponding benefit. In furnishing
the basis of the above discussions they have performed their office, though as
records they should be carefully preserved.
(Signed) J. F. W. HERSCHEL.
ERRATA,
Page 72, line 44, for Dec. read Sept.
Page 74, lines 36, 38, 39, for Sept. read Dec.
Page 75, lines 2, 43, for Sept. read Dec.
101
ON THE REDUCTION OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
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104 REPORT—1843.
Report of the Committee appointed by the British Association for
Experiments on Steam-Engines. Members of the Committee :—
Eaton Hopexinson, Esq., F.R.S.; J. Enys, Esg.; Rev. Pro-
fessor Mose.ey, M.A. F.R.S.; and Professor Witu1amM Poue.
Your Committee, in reporting the progress of the experiments entrusted to
their care, have the pleasure of stating that they have succeeded in accom-
plishing the principal object which has engaged their attention during the
past year; namely, to ascertain by actual experiment the velocity of the
piston of a single-acting Cornish pumping-engine, at all points of its stroke.
Unfortunately, however, from delays and accidents, arising from causes in-
herent in the delicate nature of the operations required and the machine used,
there has not been yet time to obtain the data and work out the calculations
necessary for comparing the results of experiment with those of theory, and
by that means eliciting the useful information which it is hoped this com-
parison will offer to practical science.
The velocity-measuring machine constructed by Breguet of Paris, under
the kindly proffered direction of M. Morin, was received a few months ago,
It is on the same principle as those with which the beautiful experiments of
M. Morin on friction were made, and which are described minutely in the
works of this writer (Nouvelles Expériences sur le Frottement, or Déscrip-
tion des Appareils Chronométriques). These may be referred to for a full
and complete explanation of the construction and action of the machine, but
the principle of it may be briefly explained as follows.
A circular disc, covered with card or paper, is made to revolve with a uni-
form motion by means of clockwork regulated by air vanes. Upon this dise,
a revolving pencil, whose motion is caused by and corresponds with that of
the body whose variable velocity is to be measured, describes a curved line:
and from this curve, which results from a combination of the variable with
the uniform motion, the velocity may be easily ascertained by processes and
formule adapted to the purpose.
This beautiful and ingenious contrivance, by which spaces described in
the 10,000dth part of a second may be easily discerned, is the invention of
M. Poncelet, carried into execution by M. Morin.
On examining the machine, it was found necessary to make some few re-
pairs of injuries it had received in carriage, and also some alterations to fit it
for the particular purpose it was proposed to apply it to. These were done
by Mr. Holtzapffel.
The instrument, when put in order, was first tried at King’s College, a
variable motion being given by a small carriage made to descend an inclined
plane. The correspondence of the velocity shown by the machine, with that
deduced by the known laws of dynamics, was such as to give great confi-
dence in its accuracy ; and after a few minor alterations suggested by fre-
quent trials, it was removed to the East London Water Works, Old Ford,
and, by the kind permission of Mr. Wicksteed, the engineer, was attached to
the Cornish engine at work there. This was considered a very favourable
engine to experiment upon, inasmuch as the constants involved in its work-
_ ing had been so accurately ascertained by Mr. Wicksteed in his previous ex-
periments, and so amply confirmed by the long trial of the constant indicator
upon it by your Committee during the years 1841 and 1842.
After several preparatory trials and adjustments, some diagrams were taken
on the 8th of August, and the velocities calculated from these have been ex-
pressed in the form of geometrical curves, whose abscisse represent the
spaces passed over by the piston of the engine, and whose ordinates indicate
the corresponding velocities at the different points of the stroke.
The velocity of the in-door, or descending stroke of the piston, is taken from
the mean of three experiments, differing very little from each other. The
ON THE GROWTH AND VITALITY OF SEEDS. 105
velocity begins from zero, accelerating as the piston descends, until at about
four feet of the stroke it attains a maximum of about 10-4 feet per second.
This is the point where the pressure of the steam in the cylinder has, by ex-
panding, become exactly equal to the resistance opposed to the motion of the
piston ; and from this point the velocity gradually decreases as the steam be-
comes more attenuated, until the piston is gradually brought to rest by the
exhaustion or expenditure of the whole of the work accumulated in the mo-
ving mass (in the shape of vis viva) during the early part of the stroke, while
the steam power exceeded the resistance.
The velocity of the owt-door, or pumping stroke, is much less than that of
the former, the greatest velocity being only about 3°8 ft. per sec.
Your Committee are still engaged in the necessary investigations connected
with these experiments, and hope to be able to furnish a more complete report
in time for publication in the Transactions of the Association*.
It is desirable to take this opportunity of acknowledging that the thanks of
the Committee are particularly due to Mr. Wicksteed and his sub-engineer,
Mr. Price, for the accommodation rendered at Old Ford ; to Mr. Cowper, of
King’s College, for his kind and able assistance in the experiments ; to Mr.
Holtzapffel and Mr. Timme for the attention paid to the repairs and adjust-
ments of the machine; and to Mr. Penn, of Greenwich, for the loan of an
excellent indicator. H. Moseey.
London, 14th August, 1843. Wix1AM Pore (Reporter).
Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. H. E. Stricxuanp, Prof.
DavuBeny, Prof. Henstow and Prof. LINDLEY, appointed to con-
tinue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds.
Tue Committee have to report, that a considerable addition has been this year
made to the collection of seeds deposited at the Botanic Garden, Oxford. As,
however, it is very desirable that the seeds of a great variety of plants should
be collected, so that at least one representative of every natural family may be
obtained, they beg to solicit further contributions of seeds (addressed to Dr.
Daubeny, Botanic Garden, Oxford), from any persons who may be interested
-in the inquiry. The seeds should of course be of good quality, and the dates
when gathered should be noted, in the mode explained in our last year’s report.
The Committee have expended 1/. 14s. in printing circulars, 2/. 10s. 3d. in
the purchase of seeds, and 9/. 6s. 8d. in expenses connected with the conduct
and registration of the experiments. They estimate that a grant of 15/. for
the ensuing year would suffice for the pursuance of the inquiry.
During the autumn of 1842,seeds of one species of eighty-five genera of plants
were collected in addition to those noticed in the report submitted in 1842.
These have been in every instance preserved according to the mode specified in
the resolutions of the Committee appointed to investigate the same, and are de-
posited in a room devoted exclusively to them in the Oxford Botanic Garden.
Of the eighty-five additional kinds of seeds,
34 were gathered in the Oxford Botanic Garden,
21 from the Horticultural Society’s Garden at Chiswick,
1 from H. E. Strickland, Esq.,
1 from Colonel P. Yorke,
1 from Thomas Hankey, Esq., favoured by Prof. Lindley,
85—27 purchased of Mr. Charlwood, Covent Garden, London.
A portion of the preceding kinds of seeds were sown in May 1843, in the
Oxford Botanic Garden, the garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick,
and also in the Cambridge Botanic Garden. These seeds were all gathered
in 1842, with the exception of Nos. 1 and 85. The result of the experiments
made in each garden is shown in the following table.
* This Report has been completed, but at too late a period for insertion in the present
volume of the Transactions.—Ed.
106 REPORT—1843.
4 Oxford.
#2 || 3 | 88
Names. ae 3s | $0
o& Sb 64 Remarks,
$ . | 32
“ 1.2 | 68
1. | Seeds from an ancient Egyp- Sown on the 24th of
tian shoe, found at Thebes; May, with the excep-
presented by Col. BOTES, tion of those which
1842. . . 8 required bottom heat,
2.| Aconitum Napellus af oo iid be on a bed of soil, in a
3.| Adonis autumnalis . . -| 50|| 33 18 | cold frame, the light
4.| Amaranthus caudatus . .|100|| 81 | 4 | being on only during
5.| Anagallis arvensis . ~- -|100|| 23/11 | night-time, to protect
6.| Buffonia annua. - |100|| 47 | 4 | the germinating seeds
7-| Buphthalmum cor difolium . 100|| 52 | 7 | from snails, slugs, &c.
8.| Bupleurum rotundifolium ./|100|| 4 | 19 The seeds were all
9.| Conium maculatum . . - |100|| 80| 11 | sown in shallow drills
10.| Cytisus Labumum . . .| 50] 14] 5 | ofuniform depth, and
11.| Dipsacus laciniatus . . .| 50|| 39} 8 | the time of germina-
12.| Elsholtzia cristata . . .{|100|| 83| 4 | ting registered when
13. | Erysimum Peroffskianum .|100|| 81 | 4 | the seed-leaves first
14.| Helianthus indicus . . .| 25) 24 | 5 | appeared above the
15.| Heracleum elegans . . .| 50] 1 | 20| surface of the soil.
16.| Hyoseyamus niger . . - {100 3} 30 Of Nos. 15 and 19
17.| Iberis umbellata . . . .{|100\100| 5 many seeds are still
18.| Iris sibirica. «. . «oe SO perfect.
19. | Lathyrus heterophyllus - «| 50] 26} 21
20.| Leonurus Cardiaca . . .|100|| 66| 8
21.| Maleomia maritima . . .|100|| 87| 3
22.| Malope grandiflora . . .|100) 54.) 4
23.| Momordica Elaterium . .| 25
24.| Nepeta Cataria. . . . .{|100)) 14| 16
25.| Nicandra Eispaclaions - -{100]| 86} 6
96.| Nigellanana . . oe | 50} 39 | 11
27.| Orobus niger... . ~ «| 50
28.| Stenactis speciosa. « . -|100|/ 34} 5
29.| Tetragonolobus purpureus . | 25|| 22} 6
30. | Trigonella foeenum-grecum. | 50/45} 3
31.| Tropeolum majus . . .| 25| 17) 7 | { Sownon hot-bed(heat
32.| Cucurbita ovifera var. . .| 15] 13) 6 {v3 gentle, as in other
33.}| Gilia achilleefolia . . . | 100) cases).
34.| Capsicum . . - « «| 25|) 20} 9 |On hot-bed.
35.| Medicago maculata - «+ « {100)) 46 | 14
36. | Calandrinia speciosa. . .|100|| 39 | 3
37.| Callichroa platyglossa . .|100|| 58| 4
38.| Collomia coccinea. . . .|100) 48 | 7
39. | Coreopsis atrosanguinea .|100] 78 | 6
40. | Cotoneaster rotundifolia .j| 20) ... | ... | Not yet vegetated.
41.| Crategus macrantha. . .| 50]... |... Ditto.
42. = punctata ccs) «(SO lodsan} aes Ditto.
43. | Cynoglossum glochidatum . 100) 16 | 9
No. vegetated.
Time of vege-
tating, in days.
Cambridge *.
Remarks,
———_——— ——
These were carefully tried with
Mays (from catacombs of
Peru) in three pots, watered
respectively with water, so-
lution of nitrate of soda, and
chlorine weak, but none ger-
minated.
Largest portion ger-
minated after forty-
four days; not yet
ceased ?
Probably more will
come up.
Ditto.
Perhaps more will
come up.
[* Sown June 2nd, 1843. Pro-
fessor Henslow remarks that
this year, and also last, the seeds
were not sown at Cambridge,
but at Hitcham, Suffolk, and
watched by himself.)
No. vegetated,
Time of vege-
tating, in days.
ON THE GROWTH AND VITALITY OF SEEDS.
Chiswick,
Remarks,
Sown May 28th.
Very healthy.
Weakly.
Weak.
Very unequal.
Very weakly.
Good.
Good.
Very strong.
Strong.
Good.
Very strong.
Very weak.
Good.
Very strong.
Good.
Good.
Good.
Very unequal.
Very strong.
Very strong.
Good.
Good.
Good.
Very healthy.
Weakly.
Strong.
108 REPORT—1843,
= Oxford.
ad| 3) 88
Names. gol 8 2s
a &| & | sa Remarks.
$ ei i=)
= | 8 |e
44,| Digitalislutea. . . 100| 95} 9
45. | Eutoca viscida . 100| 72 | 7
46. | Glaucium rubrum. - -/100|} 5 | 16
47. | Godetia Lindleyana . . .|100/ 37 | 7
48, | Gladiolus psittacinus. . . |100| 28 | 25
49. | Impatiens glanduligera . 50| ... | ... |On hot-bed.
50. | Lupinus succulentus . 100 | 54] 3
51.| Nolana atriplicifolia . 100| 14] 5
52. | Oxyura chrysanthemoides . ]/100/ 18 | 5
53. | Papaver amcenum . 100| 50} 8
54.| Phacelia tanacetifolia 100 | 34} 4
55.| Potentilla nepalensis . 100 | 49 | 10
56.| Sphenogyne speciosa. 100] 45 |" 7
57.| Acacia pseud-acacia . 100 | 14 | 9 |Some seeds still perfect. .
58.| Alstroemeria pelegrina 20} 6 | 20 |On hot-bed.
59.| Betulaalba .. 200
60. | Carpinus Betula 100
61. | Catalpa cordifolia . 50| 10 | 16 4
62.| Cercis canadensis . 50| 4 | 20 |Many seeds still perfect.)
63. | Cerinthe major . : 50| 45 | 7
64. | Cichorium Endivia var. 150| 80| 5
65.| Cobea scandens . . 6| ... | ... |On hot-bed. ;
66. | Cuphea procumbens . he a Ditto. :
67.| Dolichos lignosus . 25 | 21 9
68. | Galinsogea trilobata . 100| 69 | 9 |
69. | Ilex Aquifolium 100 | ... | ... |Not yet vegetated. 4
70.| Juniperus communis . LOO |iees Toba Ditto. 3
71.| Liriodendron Tulipiferum . || 50| 1 | 83
72.| Loasa nitida : 100 | 67 | 8 (On hot-bed.
73.| Magnoliasp. . . B 15
74: Martynia proboscidea 20; 8119 Ditto. t
75.| Mesembryanthemum crystal-
LOTR tit |e fe) 100| 45 | 7 Ditto.
76. | Mirabilis Jalapa eo WA Mel Eo Ditto.
77.| Morus nigra 100} 41 | 32
78.| Ricinus communis ce al Ni ae Pe Ditto.
79.| Rudbeckia amplexicaulis 150| 10 | 26
80. | Scorpiurus sulcata ASA AANA a /
81.| Tetragonia expansa 1a) 15-) "12
82.| Ulex europea . 100 | 20 | 12 |Some seeds still perfect.
83.| Quercus Robur 10) ... | ... |Acorns rotten.
84.| Phoenix Dactylifera . 3| 2 | 45 |On hot-bed.
85.| Melon seed from Persia ?,
IGE aig pie, te es be [he AL Ditto.
(Made up to Nov. 25.)
ON THE GROWTH AND VITALITY OF SEEDS. 109
Cambridge. Chiswick.
a | 32 Z| $8
8 peo gs >
So Sa Remarks. & | oF Remarks,
> | od > o &
s | BS s | Bs
z |BS 2 |&8
44. | 26 | 25 44. | 92 | 39 | Very equal.
45.| 24 | 11 45.| 72 | 30 | Very unequal.
46.| 1] ? 46 4 | 45 | Very weak.
47. | 21 6 47. | 81 | 32 | Very healthy.
48.| 6 | 50 | Probably more will || 48.| 8 | 31 | Very weak.
49, come up. 49.
50.| 63 | 5 50. | 98 | 28 | Very strong.
51.| 56 | 7 51.| 50 | 30 | Good.
52.| 22) 9 52.| 14 | 42 | Weakly.
bo.) 39"! “9 53. | 90 | 20 | Strong.
54,| 74 | 4 54. | 23 | 12 | Very healthy.
55. 55.
56.| 18 | 12 56. | 94 | 25 | Very healthy.
57.| 17 | 16 Ditto. 57.
58.| 13 | 27 58.
. 59.
i| 60.
61.| 1 | 41 | Very weak.
26 Ditto. 62.
12 63. | 24 | 27 | Very- equal.
5 64. | 67 | 17 | Good.
65.
15 66. | 21 | 29 | Weakly.
43 Ditto. 67. | 23 | 45 | Strong.
16 68.
69.
70.
T
11 | Several much later. 72.| 27 | 30 | Very strong.
73.
23 | Most much later. 74. | 12 | 38 | Good.
16 75.
13 76. | 10 | 42 | Strong.
23 | Probably more will || '77.| 26 | 43 | Good.
19 come up. 78.| 6 | 29 | Very strong.
79.
11 | Mostly much later. 80. | 15 | 18 | Good.
16 81.| 9 | 28 | Good.
17 82.
83.
84.
85.
(Made up to August 4.)
W. H. Baxter, Curator. H. E. StricKLAnD.
C. B, DAUBENY.
110 REPORT—1843.
Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of Forth
and the East Coast of Scotland. By J. 8. Russewu, Esq.
THESE observations extended over several seasons, and no compiete report
had been yet presented, as the observations of each former season had only
shown the necessity of further extending the observations. The observations
of the first season had shown the existence of certain anomalous tides, which
had not formerly been accurately examined, and proved that these anomalies
were more extensive than was at first conceived. Next season the observa-
tions were more widely extended, so as to include many adjacent places, to
which the same anomalies were traced, and thus the general nature and extent
of the phanomena were determined with accuracy and precision, and reported
to the last meeting. But it was found that great differences of opinion existed
with reference to the cause of these ascertained phzenomena, which rendered
it obvious that the observations required to be extended still further in time
and extent, in order conclusively to settle the questions which had arisen out
of the former inquiries, ‘This last series, from its extent and completeness,
had now been so fully examined and discussed, as to afford ample means
of deciding on the nature of the phenomena, and determining their origin.
Simultaneous observations had been made at nearly twenty stations on the
eastern coast, from Newcastle and Shields to Inverness ; and as many as 2000
observations in a day registered and discussed. The results of these were ex-
hibited in the tables and diagrams accompanying the report. And the result
of the whole had been to elucidate in a remarkable manner, the mechanism
which propagates along our shores and rivers the great ocean-wave which
carries from one place to another the successive phenomena of the tides, in
such a manner as could not have been attained by any system of cbservation
less extensive than that which had been adopted.
It is pretty generally known that the phenomena of the tides, with re-
ference to their generating cause, the influence of the mass of the sun and
of the moon, in the various relations of distance and direction of these lumi-
naries, have recently been examined with great success, in a series of re-
searches carried on first by Mr. Lubbock, and then by Mr. Whewell, partly
with the co-operation of this Association. By means of their labours we are
now enabled to predict with unlooked-for accuracy, the time of high water and
the height of the tide in many of the harbours of Great Britain. But many of
the local phenomena of tides remained unaccounted for, and these had been
the object of a special series of researches, of which the present formed a
part, the object being to determine in what way the conformation of the
shores, and of the bottom of the sea, and the forms of the channels of rivers
and friths affect the pheenomena of the tidal-wave. The rivers Dee and Clyde
had been formerly examined with this view. To these were now added the
Forth, the Tay, and the Tyne, and the northern shores of the German
Ocean. [The author then described the general character of the coast, and
pointed out the peculiarities of peers and form which render the Frith of
Forth so remarkable a feature of it. ]
The manner in which these observations were conducted is not the usual
one, of noting down simply the hour at which high water oceurs, and then
the hour of low water, along with the height at which the water stands at
these times ; such a method had been found quite inadequate to the purposes
for which such observations are required; and indeed Mr. Russell thought
it of importance that all tide observations should, if possible, be made in the
manner he was now about to describe, especially all tide observations made
for scientific purposes. He had adopted this method in all his observations, __
ON THE TIDES OF THE FRITH OF FORTH. 111
those published formerly in the Transactions being on a similar plan, but in
this case it had been more fully carried out, and found of greater importance
than in former cases. This plan was to carry on simultaneously at the places
examined, a series of continuous observations every five minutes night and
day, by successive observers, without intermission, for the period of a month,
or of several months, as might be required. Printed forms were sent to all
the stations, and in them the observer simply noted down every five minutes
the height of the tide on a graduated scale placed before him. Every day
at noon all these papers were sent by post to the central station, and im-
mediately on their arrival the papers of the different stations were compared
and their observations laid down on paper, so as to give a graphical repre-
sentation to the eye of all the observations, by means of which they were at once
verified and compared with great facility ; and accuracy of observation was
by this means made very certain, as carelessness or incorrectness in the ob-
servations was at once manifest to the eye.
These tide-waves were represented to the eye in the following way. A
horizontal line is divided into equal parts, which represent time or hours,
thus,—VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XU, I, &c.; and these spaces are again
subdivided into twelfth parts of an hour; a scale of feet is placed vertically,
and numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c.; then the observations are taken, and if
is found that at VI o'clock the water stood at 0, and then was low water ;
at VII the water had risen to 1 foot, and a mark is made one foot high above
the hour VII ; at VIII a mark is made at the corresponding height of 23 feet ;
at IX a mark is placed above it to the corresponding height. When this
has been done for every hour and also for every five minutes, these points
form a line, which exhibits the form of the tide-wave as it passed that station
on the day of observation; in this way are laid down on the same paper all
the observations of the same day at the different stations. :
From the examination of the form of these tide-waves thus laid down, cer-
tain characters of the tide-wave peculiar to each locality had been discovered.
As in the former observations of the Clyde and the Dee, so in this series it had
been found that the form and dimensions of a channel produce important:
changes on the form of the tide-wave. Where the sea was deep and the shore
open and abrupt, the tide-wave was symmetrical, and of the form predicted
by Laplace, when he says that in rising and falling the water covers in equal
times equal arcs of a vertical circle. This is the form of the ocean tide-waye ;
but on approaching a shallow shore and travelling along a shelving coast, the
tide-wave undergoes two changes; its summit hecomes displaced forwards
in time, its horizontal chords become dislocated, and the wave ceases to be
symmetrical. This peculiar dislocation and displacement are characteristic
of a littoral tide, and in the case of running streams, the currents still further
affect the tide-wave, and give to it a peculiar distortion characteristic of flu-
vial tides. To these were further added the exaggeration and elevation of the
tide by means of narrow channels, All these phenomena were fully proved
by the present series of observations. :
The author also considers it to have been fully established, by the obser-
vations on the Frith of Forth, that there exists on the eastern coast satisfac-
tory evidence of the presence of a second tide-wave in that part of the German
Ocean, and that the southern tide-wave, a day older than the northern tide-
wave, sensibly affects the phenomena of that part of the coast. To this he
attributes the double tides of the Frith of Forth, the nature of which he fully
explained. Regarding these double tides various theories had been formed ;
and there were various ways in which such tides might happen, whenever
tide-waves arrive by different paths in different times. But this kind of double
112 REPORT—1843.
tide was in this case only to be explained by the method he had adopted,
which removed the difficulties in which the subject had formerly been
involved.
He then proceeded to explain the mode of discussion which had beenadopted.
It was the semi-diurnal inequality, so accurately examined by Mr. Whewell,
which enabled us to decide on the ages of two tides. If the two tides which
appeared together presented opposite inequalities both in time and in height,
regularly alternating, varying with the moon's declination, disappearing with
it and reappearing with it, and following it regularly without regard to other
simultaneous changes of a different period, then it becomes plain that no
other inference could be drawn than that he had mentioned; and when
further, he had proceeded to treat these tides as compounded of two success-
ive tides, one due to a transit 12"24™ later than the other, and had used for
this purpose two simple river tides superimposed at a distance in time cor-
responding to that at which the northern and southern tides could enter the
Frith, he had obtained a close representation of the double tides of the
Frith of Forth; when these two methods of examination ended in the same
conclusion, he conceived that it had attained a very high degree ef pro-
bability.
By means of these observations tide tables had been formed which were
designed to afford a more accurate means of predicting the local tides of the
east coast of Scotland than any we now possessed.
The author of the report took occasion to express the deep regret with
which he appeared as the only representative of this Committee, having been
deprived of the valuable services of his coadjutor by the lamented death of
Sir John Robison, a zealous promoter of science and a valuable member of
the British Association.
Notice of a Report of the Committee on the Form of Ships.
By Joun Scorr Russe, Esq.
Tuis report was voluminous, containing the reductions of a large number
of experiments, and about 20,000 observations, made on more than 100
vessels of different forms, accurate drawings of all of which, on a large
working scale, were laid on the table. It is the hope of the Committee that
this report may be published in order to give the public all the benefit
which accurate knowledge on this point was likely to convey. The present
abstract does not therefore enter fully into the details of their voluminous
results, but is confined to a general account of the objects which this Com-
mittee had in view, the methods of inquiry which they had adopted, and a
few of the more general conclusions to which they had been conducted.
It had long been the reproach of science that so little had been done to
enable the practical man to proceed with certainty in his attempts to improve
the speed of ships. There were some points in which science had done all
that can be desired. The immersion of a ship, her trim, her centre of buoy-
ancy, her stability, can all be determined with accuracy beforehand, and the
scientific naval constructor can proceed with certainty upon fixed scientific
principles. It is otherwise with the speed and resistance of a ship. In
nothing does calculation more completely fail than in the attempt to deter-
mine beforehand the speed of a ship constructed on given lines, or to show
how a form may be so altered as to render it faster than before. To ealeu-
late the resistance opposed by the water to the passage of a ship through it,
and to find that form which at a given velocity will pass through the water
with least resistance, and of course with the smallest expenditure of power;
ON THE FORM OF SHIPS. 113
such was the problem hitherto the least resolved, and always one of the most
important which these experiments were intended to investigate.
There were also two phases in which the problem presented itself, the
scientific and the practical view of the subject: there were therefore two
classes of experiments—those designed to advance our knowledge of the laws
of hydrodynamics which govern the phenomena of resistance of fluids, and the
other the experiments serving as a basis to the operations of the practical
construction of ships, the Experimenta Lucifera and the Experimenta Fruc-
tifera of Lord Bacon.
Many experiments had formerly been made on this subject, but we had at
that time so imperfect a system of hydrodynamics, that the conclusions
drawn from them could not be relied on with confidence in the applications
to be made on a large scale by the practical man. The Academy of Sci-
ences had made a series of such experiments at large expense, defrayed by
the French government. Colonel Beaufoy in our own country had made an
important series of such experiments, at an expense of £30,000, but these
were of comparatively little value for the same reason, viz. that the forms did
not comprehend such forms as were actually required for the purposes of naval
construction, and because the state of science was not such as to enable us,
from the resistance of one form, to deduce with certainty that of another.
One experiment of Colonel Beaufoy was of value, as it told us the resistance
produced by the adhesion of water to the surface of a body independent of
form, at various velocities. But the others were made on bodies not ana-
logous to the forms of ships, and many of them on forms moved through the
water far below the surface, and so suited to the construction of fishes or
submarine navigation, but not for the purpose of sailing on the surface. For
the purpose of giving practical value to the present series, experiments had
been made on many different scales of magnitude, some in narrow channels,
others in large canals, and finally on the open sea. Some were made on
models of 3 feet in length, others of 10 feet; some on vessels 25 feet long,
75 feet long, and some on vessels 200 feet long and nearly 2000 tons capa-
city. Thus it was trusted that the scale of the experiments was such as to
give confidence in the results. Next, as regards the forms of vessels made
the subject of experiment, they were similar to those required for the prac-
tical purposes of construction. One class consisted of such forms as were
required for steam navigation ; plans of steam ships of the best construction,
and others of worse forms, were accurately laid down on the same scale, in
the same way and with the same accuracy of proportion as if they had been
for actual construction, and along with these were some of new forms. A
given form having been found to be a good one, was then varied by length-
ening, first in one manner, then in another; now in the middle, now at the
rear, now at the entrance, and so on, to discover the best mode of improving
a given good form. In sailing vessels some of the celebrated Chapman’s best
forms were taken and treated in a similar manner, and along with them were
compared the common forms of merchantmen and other ships. The class of
fast-sailing yachts and cutters was treated in the same way, by taking some
of the best known forms and determining by experiment the effects produced
by lengthening and shortening them, making them fuller here, and finer there,
and so ascertaining with accuracy the effect of each alteration of form on the
great object of inquiry, namely, the determination in given circumstances of
the method of giving such a form to a ship as shall enable her to pass through
the water with the least resistance, the greatest velocity, and of course the
smallest expenditure of force, power, and money. To these were added a
number of theoretical and geometrical forms.
1843. I
114 REPORT—1843.
The methods of drawing these vessels through the water varied with the
scale on which the experiments were made. ‘Those on the smallest scale
were drawn by a weight arranged in such a manner as to supply a uniform
force through any given distance. Those ona larger scale combined the
power of horses with the action of a weight, so as to apply their force, when
freed from irregularities, to the same object. On a still larger scale the power
of steam was employed, and on the largest scale the experiments were made
on the sea by means of powerful towing vessels, In this way the experiments
were made on a wide range of magnitude, both as regarded the vessels them-
selves and the sheet of water on which they were propelled—an element of
resistance not always sufficiently taken into account.
The resistance was accurately measured by dynamometrie apparatus of
great accuracy, through which the moving force was communicated to the
vessel; the velocity being determined in certain cases by a peculiar appa-
ratus designed for this purpose, and in other cases by instruments for mea-
suring and marking time with accuracy. The observations were registered
by independent observers ; carefully recorded by individuals employed for
that purpose; then finally passed through a series of operations of reduc-
tion so as to fit them for immediate reference and use in caleulation. After
this process had been gone through by independent calculators, and not till
then, were they made the subject of special examination with reference to
every theory, and thus it was conceived that the greatest amount of authen-
ticity had been secured.
The author then proceeded to give to the Meeting a number of specimens
of the results which the experiments afforded, such as he knew were likely to
interest those members of the Section who were acquainted with the prinei-
ples of naval construction. He demonstrated a remarkable law by which it
appears that each velocity has a corresponding form and dimension peculiar
to that velocity ; and he showed in a variety of diagrams the means of con-
structing such forms. To show how much influence form alone, without an
other element or dimension, affects the question of resistance, he adduced the
following as one of the most important experiments. Four vessels were taken,
having all the same length, the same breadth, the same depth, the same area
and form of midship section, and all loaded to the same weight, displacement
and draft of water, the only difference being in the character of the water-
lines; No. I., being of the new form indicated by these experiments as that
of least resistance; No. III., the old form, very nearly the reverse of the first;
No. LI., intermediate between them; and No. IV. intermediate between No. I.
and No. II. The following table shows the result of the comparative trial :—
| Resistance | Resistance | Resistance | Resistance
Speed in Miles per hour.| in pounds. |in pounds. | in pounds. | in pounds.
—————_—
No. I. | No. II. | No.1I.| 0. 1V.
3 miles 10 12 12 dil
4. 18 22 ZGinch mvrgis
Lee a 28 38 AQ 35°
6 — 39 ae 72 56°
7— 52 96 129 84°
I
These differences showed how much might be gained, everything else being
equal, by the adoption simply of judicious forms in the construction of the
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF MEDICINES. 115
water-lines of a ship. The vessel No. I. was constructed on the waye-line ;
the methods and rules for which he proceeded to explain by diagrams.
Mr. Scott Russell expressed to the Section the regret which he felt in the
loss of Sir John Robison, who had been a zealous member of this Committee.
One of his last acts had been to express his interest in their labours.
Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines.
By J. Buaxe, .R.C.S.
In regard to the following observations on the action of medicines I must
beg to observe, that I have used the word medicine in its most general sense,
and considered it as comprehending any, bas or force capable of exerting
an influence on the animal economy. Under this point of view it is evident
that the field of investigation is most extensive. The part of it to which I
have more particularly directed my attention has been, the phenomena pro-
duced by the introduction of yarious substances directly into the blood.
Although such an inquiry does not promise to lead to any direct practical
results, it nevertheless offers to us the means of producing certain definite
changes in the circulating fluid and in the tissues, in a much readier manner
than we can hope to de hy any other method; and there can be little doubt
that a careful analysis of the facts thus obtained, will afford data which
must sooner or later prove available for the adyancement of medical science.
In the last memoir which I published on this subject, I alluded to a fact
which seemed indicated rather than proved by the experiments I had then
made; this was, the apparently analogous action of isomorphous substances
when introduced directly into the blood, But experiments which would bring
into one class, as regards their physiological action, substances so dissimilar
in their therapeutical properties as comman salt and nitrate of silver, mag-
nesia and iron, evidently required to be carefully repeated and extended, before
they could admit of being received as data for founding so extraordinary a
generalization: at the same time the importance of such a law, if discovered,
affording, as it would do, the first step to a more scientific insight into the
action of substances on the animal economy, appeared to me so evident, that
I considered I could not better carry out the objects proposed to me by the
Association, than hy extending my researches in this direction, so as to yerify
or disprove the law in question, —
I haye also instituted a series of experiments to ascertain if in animals,
with whose food foreign substances were mixed, these substances would com-
bine with or be deposited in the tissues; and if so, whether they would be
found in greater quantity in one tissue or organ than in another. For this
purpose I have fed rabbits on food with which salts of strontian in one in-
stance, and in another salts of lead, were mixed; conceiving that the stron-
tian might possibly replace the lime in the bones, and that the lead would
readily furnish me with facts, from the facility with which it can be detected,
and from its uniting easily with the animal tissues, at least according to the
generally-received opinion, The first series of experiments, or those with the
salts of strontian, have led to only negative results, owing to the difficulty of
separating strontian from lime, In my experiments with the salts of lead, I
have arrived at conclusions which are opposed to the opinions generally en-
tertained on the absorption and deposition of this substance : I therefore think
it necessary to relate the experiments in detail.
I procured two full-grown healthy rabbits, and mixed six grains of ace-
tate of lead with their food daily, so that each was taking three grains a-day ;
12
116 REPORT—1843.
either from the presence of the lead or some other cause, the animals did
not appear at first to relish their food, but after a few days they ate as well
as ever. After they had been taking this dose for ten days, the quantity of
the acetate of lead was increased to six grains daily for each rabbit, and in
five days more the quantity was increased to ten grains daily for each:
they did not appear to suffer from this large dose, and it was again aug-
mented to fifteen grains. After this dose had been taken for eighteen days
one of the animals died, apparently from gradual inanition—there was no
paralysis. The quantity of acetate of lead taken was 380 grains in the
space of seven weeks. The only morbid appearances discovered after death,
were redness of the lungs, and a thickened leathery state of the mucous
membrane of the stomach, which was also lighter in colour than natural: the
different viscera and the body were preserved for analysis. The other rabbit
lived six weeks longer, the dose of the acetate of lead being gradually in-
creased ; for six days before its death, it was taking a drachm of the acetate
daily ; no symptoms of paralysis were observed, on the animal being allowed
to run about, two days before it died. A post-mortem examination showed
that the mucous membrane of the stomach had been the part principally
acted on by the poison; it was so softened, that when the stomach was
opened it remained adhering to the mass of food which the stomach con-
tained, and without a careful investigation it was difficult to say if it was
thickened mucus or the membrane itself that covered the food. The lining
membrane of the small intestines and caecum was also softened and reddened
in patches; the colon and rectum natural. The mesenteric glands were
enlarged and converted into a cheesy substance ; tubercles were also found
in the liver. The other viscera appeared healthy. At the time of its death
this animal had taken upwards of four ounces of the acetate of lead, this sub-
stance having been mixed with its food during nearly three months. A care-
ful analysis of the different viscera, with the exception of the stomach and
intestinal canal, enabled me to detect the presence of lead only in the brain,
in which organ it was found in both rabbits. Nor was I more successful in
discovering it in the muscular tissue, or in the bones. 170 grains of the dried
muscle from the first rabbit were heated with nitric and sulphuric acids, and
then incinerated in an unglazed porcelain crucible: dilute hydrochloric acid
was added, and the soluble portions removed by filtration; as by this means
the greater portion of the salts, which interfere with the perfect combustion
of the organic matter, was got rid of. What remained on the filter was
moistened with nitric acid, and again burnt; this process being repeated until
all the organic matter appeared quite destroyed: not the slightest trace of
lead was discovered. The same process was pursued with the whole of the
body of the other animal, with the exception of the viscera, which were
analysed separately, and not the slightest trace of lead was discovered,
although the animal had been taking it for three months, during which time
it had swallowed more than four ounces. As in the last rabbit, the brain was
the only part in which any trace of the poison could be detected ; and here
the quantity was so small as not to be appreciable by the balance, and must
have been less than the hundredth of a grain, as that quantity could have
been collected and weighed.
I think these experiments suffice to prove that, at least in rabbits, lead is not
deposited in the muscular tissue. ‘This result is certainly opposed to the
commonly -received opinion on this point. I have only to observe, that the
experiments have been conducted with the greatest care, and under favourable
circumstances, as from the kindness of my friend Professor Graham, I had the
advantage of conducting my analyses in his laboratory. A series of analogous
“ues yeangigenr: "+>
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF MEDICINES. 117
researches have been conducted with the salts of mercury, but they are not
yet completed. I trust on a future occasion to Jay the results before this
Section of the Association.
The experiments that have been performed on the action of substances
when introduced directly into the blood, embrace salts of iron, nickel, man-
ganese and cadmium, thus completing, with the experiments already pub-
lished, the whole of the magnesian class*. I have also investigated the
action of the acids of arsenic and phosphorus, between which well-marked
isomorphous relations are known to exist.
As the action of each substance in the same isomorphous group closely
resembles that of the others, I shall, for the first class, state generally the
effects they give rise to, referring to the experiments which have already been
published for more minute details. The most marked symptoms that follow
the introduction into the blood of any of the salts of the magnesian family, are
evidently due to an action they exert on the nervous system, an action so well-
marked and so peculiar, as readily to distinguish this class of salts from any
other substance derived either from the vegetable or mineral kingdoms with
which I have yet experimented. Whilst most poisons that act on the nervous
system, seem to exert their influence more particularly on the motor or sensi-
tive properties of the nerves, these, on the contrary, afford an example of a
specific action on the voluntary functions of the brain, or on the power of
volition. When these salts are injected into the veins in proper quantities,
the first effect that follows is generally vomiting ; the animal then either falls
or lies down, and will remain for many minutes in the same position, or in
any position in which it may be placed, without once attempting to move,
although it possesses the power of standing and walking about: the state in
which it lies may be compared to that of catalepsy, were it not that, whilst
in catalepsy the position of the limb remains unchanged from a want of power
to move it, in the state induced by the injection of these salts, the limb is
capable of being moved, but retains its position from the animal making no
effort to change it. During the whole of the time the animal lies in this inert
state, the sensibility remains perfect, and it appears quite free from pain; it
turns its eyes in the direction of the person who may speak to it, and shows
its sensibility when caressed, by slight movements of the tail, although lying in
all other respects like an inert mass, with the exception of the respiratory
movements, which continue with the greatest regularity. Sometimes the
animal will remain in a most constrained position for many minutes, although
so placed as to require a considerable degree of muscular exertion to retain
it. I have, for instance, seen a dog remain for full five minutes with its fore
legs bent under it, resting on the head and thorax and hind legs, although
at the time it could walk about very well. Such are the symptoms that
characterize the action of the whole of these substances on the nervous
system: besides this, they exert a decided effect on the heart, destroying the
irritability of that organ, when injected into the veins in larger doses. I have
described fully in my former memoirs the action of this class of substances
on the vascular system, and have only to add, that the salts of iron, nickel,
manganese and cadmium, are perfectly analogous in this respect with those
of magnesia, copper and zinc. The only difference between them is, as to the
quantities required to produce the same train of symptoms; the quantity of
sulphate of iron, dissolved in six drachms of water, which, when introduced into
the jugular, will arrest the action of the heart, is from thirty to forty grains ;
of sulphate of nickel from ten to twenty grains ; of sulphate of cadmium from
five to eight grains; and of sulphate of manganese from ten to twelve grains.
* See Edinb, Med. and Surg. Journal, No, 148.
118 REPORT—1843.
These quantities, however, must depend, to a certain extent, on the size of
the animal, and on the rapidity with which the injection is introduced.
The marked and peculiar action which these substatices exert on the ner-
vous system, and the entire absence of any unpleasant symptoms when they
are injected in moderate quantities, suggests the idea as to how far this pro-
perty might be made available against some of the more violent convulsive
diseases, such as tetanus and hydrophobia, against which the resources of our
art are at present so powerless. Should any cases of these diseases come
under my care, I certainly should try the effect of injecting some of these
substances into the veins. I think the acetate of magnesia might be the most
useful salt to employ; its permanent effects when introduced into the blood
do not seein at all deleterious, as I have kept dogs ten or twelve days without
any ill consequences, after introducing in one instance fifteen grains, and in
another twenty grains into the veins. I should consider that from two seru-
ples to a drachm dissolved in two ounces of water, could not possibly be in-
jurious if introduced into the veins of a human being, and probably a much
greater quantity might be borne without danger.
The only other class of substances with which I have experimented has been
arsenic and phosphorus, which have been used under the form of arsenic, arse-
nious and phosphoric acids. It is a curious fact, that arsenic, one of the most
violent of poisons, should, when introduced into the veins, even in much larger
quantities than would be required to produce death if given by the stomach,
give rise to no particular action on any organ which permits us to localize its
effects, or to say that it kills by the changes it produces in any one tissue in
preference to another. It certainly does not kill by its action on the heart, for
when as much as twenty grains of arsenic acid are introduced into the veins,
the action of the heart is but very slightly affected. Nor are the functions of
the brain at all interfered with by so large a dose, at least not for some time.
It would seem that it is not on any organ in particular that the poison acts,
but that the whole of the tissues of the animal gradually lose their vitality, by
changes which appear to require time for their production. After death, the
mucous membrane of the lungs and the intestinal canal are the parts which
present the most marked effects of the action of the poison, but the amount of
lesion of these parts is often not sufficient to produce death. The similarity
of action of the arsenic, arsenious and phosphoric acids is such, that I shall only
give a detail of some experiments made with the former of these substances.
On injecting a solution containing three grains of arsenic acid, dissolved in
six drachms of water, into the jugular vein of a dog, there was a diminution
of pressure in the arterial system, as indicated by the hemadynamometer ;
after a short time the action of the heart became quicker, and the pressure
in the arteries again increased ; the functions of the nervous system did not
appear deranged: on again injecting six grains the same phenomena pre-
sented themselves ; the respiration, however, was now becoming very rapid,
and this was the only marked symptom, when two other injections, one of four-
teen and the other containing forty grains of the acid, had been introduced ;
at this time, however, the action of the heart had become much weaker, and
the pressure in the arteries was only equal to a column of mercury of two
inches ; sensibility appeared unimpaired, and there were no convulsions. On
again injecting sixteen grains of the acid, the action of the heart ceased after
a few seconds. A post-mortem examination showed that both the mucous
membrane of the lungs and intestinal canal had been much affected by the
poison; they were both reddened, and were covered with a frothy secretion,
which in the lungs must have greatly interfered with the arterialization of the
blood. In another experiment a drachm of the acid was injected at once,
ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 119
without producing any marked symptoms, and the animal did not die until
fifteen minutes after another drachm had been introduced into the vein. In
most instances the blood has been found to coagulate less firmly than usual,
but this has not always been the case. The symptoms produced by arsenious
and phosphoric acids, when injected into the veins, are strictly analogous to
those above described; the arsenious acid appears rather more poisonous
than the arsenic, and the phosphoric may be considered as about equal to
the arsenic. If concentrated solutions of either the arsenic or phosphoric
acids are injected into the veins, the passage of the blood through the lungs
appears impeded, and the irritability of the heart is destroyed.
These are the results at which I have arrived, and taken in connection with
those I have already published, I think they fully justify us in concluding,
that there exists a close relation between certain chemical properties of sub-
stances, and their action on organized beings. I am aware that such a doc-
trine has often been vaguely advanced, under a general point of view, but I
think the experiments which I have brought forward are the first that tend
to point out any scientific connection between the properties of bodies, and
their action on organized beings: under a scientific point of view, too, this
relation is the more interesting, as being connected with a property of mat-
ter which is manifested more particularly by the form it assumes ; and it is
well known, that in physiology, form is an important element in every phe-
nomenon. As to the nature of the changes which these substances exert on
the blood and tissues, and on which their physiological action would appear
to depend, it would be absurd, in the present state of chemistry and physio-
logy, even to hazard a conjecture. The mere fact of the nitrate of soda and
the nitrate of silver, when injected into the veins, giving rise to analogous
reactions on the animal economy, must suffice to show how far our present
gross means of chemical analysis are incapable of seizing those more delicate
changes of which living fluids and tissues are the seat; nor could any facts
than those above brought forward, more strongly teach us the necessity of
caution in admitting the hasty generalizations of those, who would attempt to
explain the whole of the phenomena of living beings, by the glimmering light
which chemistry in its present embryo state can afford.
Report of a Committee appointed to print and circulate a Report on
Zoological Nomenclature. .
Tue Committee, whose Report on the above subject appeared in the last vo-
lume of the Association, having recommended that extra copies of it should
be circulated among British and foreign zoologists, and the sum of 10/. having
been last year voted for that purpose, they now beg leave to report as follows:—
They have paid 4/. 10s. to Messrs. Taylor for printing two editions of the Re-
port in its incomplete state for the use of the members of the Committee ;
another sum of 4d. 10s. to Messrs. Taylor for printing 350 extra copies of the
eomplete Report, and also for the cost of its insertion on an extra sheet in the
Philosophical Magazine, and in the Annals of Natural History; and 1J. has
been assigned towards the cost of transmitting the extra copies by post, making
in all10/. About 250 of the extra copies have already been distributed among
scientific societies and individuals at home and abroad.
There seems every reason to believe that the principles of zoological lan-
guage embodied in the Report alluded to are becoming very generally adopted
and acted upon by foreign as well as British zoologists. The Committee
have much gratification in announcing that their Report has met with a most
120 REPORT—1843.
favourable reception from the naturalists of Italy. At the scientific Congress
held last year at Padua, the Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte submitted to the
meeting an Italian translation of our code of rules, which was generally ap-
proved of, and a committee of six zoologists and as many botanists was ap-
pointed to consider them in detail, and to report thereon to the meeting at
Lucca in the present year. A French translation of our Report has appeared
in the scientific journal called ‘ L’Institut,’ in which paper much stress is laid
on the importance of the measure. A very gratifying review of it has also
appeared in the American Journal of Science. Let us hope that these efforts
to produce uniformity in the scientific language of zoology will tend to faci-
litate intercourse between the naturalists of all countries, at once aiding the
progress of their sciences and strengthening the bonds of their mutual amity.
H. E. StrickLanpD
(on the part of the Committee).
Report of the Committee appointed by the British Association in 1842,
for registering the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteoro-
logical Observations as may appear to them desirable.
Tue Committee take leave to report, that during the last twelve months the
earthquakes in Perthshire have been more quiet than usual. From the end
of June 1842 (down to which date its movements were last year reported by
the Committee) only about thirty shocks have occurred at Comrie, to the first
of July, 1843. The dates of these (the last year’s shocks) will be found in a
table annexed to this report; and in the same table has been inserted some
meteorological information, furnished by Mr. Macfarlane of Comrie, who
takes charge of the instruments belonging to the Association.
None of the Comrie shocks were so violent as to produce much, or indeed
almost any, heave or undulation of the ground. They seem to have con-
sisted of a sudden concussion only, accompanied by the usual trembling of the
earth and rumbling subterranean noise.
In the table annexed to this year’s report, and in compliance with the in-
structions given to the Committee, there is stated the quantity of rain and
also the average height of the barometer for each month. If (as has been
suggested) the rain which descends into the earth has some connection with
the causes of earthquake shocks—perhaps the remarkable dryness of last au-
tumn may, in part at least, account for the scarcity and slightness of the shocks
at a season when they have been generally most frequent.
It is also not undeserving of attention, with reference to another specula-
tion on this subject, that the barometer seems to have been particularly low
at the time of the shocks. This at least was the case on the only two occa-
_sions on which the height of the barometer was marked at the instant of the
shocks, viz. on the 24th of September 1842 and 23rd of March 1843. The
barometer was then lower, not only than the average height for the month,
but also than that of the day when the shock occurred. Thus, on the 23rd
of March 1843 (as the table shows), the height of the barometer was at the
moment of the shock, at 8 p.M., 29°12, and of another shock at 11 P.m., 29°10,
whilst the average height for that day was 29°26, and for the month 29°72.
The height of the barometer at the instant of the shock on the 24th of Sep-
tember 1842 will also be seen to have been lower than the average height
for that month.
It is to be regretted that the height of the barometer was not registered on
the occasion of all the shocks, so that there might have been on this point a
—————— ee, ie aan ee eee
ON EARTHQUAKES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 121
wider field of induction. The Committee will endeavour to get this defect
supplied in the observations of the ensuing year.
The first shock at Comrie on the 24th of September 1842, though by no
means violent, was well marked by the instruments. The inverted pendulum
placed in the steeple there (and which is ten feet long) had its head thrown
to the north-west about one-eighth of an inch, indicating that its base had
been suddenly moved thus much to the south-east. Another instrument, on
the principle of the common pendulum, about four feet long, had its lower
extremity thrown also one-eighth of an inch to the westward, indicating that
its point of suspension had been suddenly pushed thus much eastward. Two
other instruments, constructed so as to be affected by vertical concussions,
indicated an upward heave of the ground to the extent of th of an inch.
The instruments were affected on other two occasions, as needs in the re-
gister, but not in any very marked degree. Their indications entirely accord
with the inference derived from the experience of shocks in previous years,—
that the point from which they emanate is west-north-west from Comrie, and
distant from it about a mile, or a little more.
The Committee will next notice the other places in Great Britain where
during the last year they have learned that shocks have been felt. They will
mention them in chronological order :—
August 19, 1842. At Pitlochry, between Dunkeld and Blair, about 8 p.m.,
three shocks were felt. It was remarked that the night was warm and sultry,
with a drizzling rain, and that at midnight the thermometer stood at the un-
usual height of 72°.
August 22, 1842. A shock was felt in North Wales, and extended through
the whole of Anglesea. The south-east portion of that island was most affected.
February 25, 1843. At Oban and Lochgilphead, in Argyleshire, as also in
the intervening district, a shock was felt about 8 p.m. A person who felt this
shock near Oban, described it to one of the Committee as producing a motion
“such as one feels when standing near a heavy cart passing on a hard road
made on a deep mossy bottom,—a sort of heaving and trembling at the same
time.” In a paragraph which appeared in the newspapers, it was stated that
a person near Oban observed a flash of lightning about the time of the shock.
March 3, 1843. At Lochgilphead a shock was again felt about 8" 40™ p.m.
It was attended by the usual trembling and subterranean noise. It lasted from
thirty to forty seconds.
March 10, 1843. Through the district to the north-east of Manchester an
earthquake was felt about 8 a.m. Its most violent action was said to have
been in the chain of hills separating Yorkshire and Lancashire.
March 17, 1843. About | a.m., the same district was again affected by a
shock, but which on this oceasion had a much wider range. It was felt
simultaneously in Lancashire, Cumberland, Dumfriesshire, Isle of Man,
Belfast, and even in the islands of Jersey and Guernsey. It does not appear
to have been felt in the intervening district of the aide and south-east of
England.
This shock was accompanied by a noise which is dieseraben as resembling
the hissing of steam or the rushing of wind. The ground also trembled, and
in some places heaved. Even at Belfast and its neighbourhood, where the
effects produced have been reported on by Mr. Bryce, a member of the Com-
mittee, the particular phenomenon now adverted to was perceived. Mr. Bryce
says, “that the motion was that of a ship in a heavy swell, and the feeling
was given that the room and bed were rolling over.” By another it is de-
scribed as like “that rolling motion of a ship which induces nausea ;” and
this individual actually experienced that sensation in a slight degree. Another
122 REPORT—1843,
compared the concussion to “what a sudden and strong gust of wind would
produce, or a loaded cart passing along the street.”
Mr. Ronchetti, who resides at Salford, near Manchester, found his baro-
meter at 8 p.M. on the preceding evening (viz. about five hours before the
shock) standing at 29°90. He sat up reading till 2 a.M., 2. e. an hour after
the shock, but without perceiving it. His barometer was then standing at
29°70, so that it had fallen nearly two-tenths during the five hours preceding
the shock. A correspondent at Ulswater states that he observed his baro-
meter also falling during the previous afternoon. Mr. Atkinson’s Meteoro-
logical Register, near Carlisle, shows that at 9 p.m. on the 16th of March the
barometer was 29°794:; at 9 A.M. on the 17th it was 29°736; and at 9 p.m. on
the same day 29°750, being lowest therefore near the time of the shock.
There thus seems to be little doubt that the shock occurred with, as usual, a
falling barometer.
In a notice of the same shock, dated at Fleetwood-on-Wyre, it is mentioned,
that during the whole of the previous afternoon the sky presented a gloomy
and lowering appearance. The air was unusually close, and a dense haze
hung over the sea.
At and near Manchester the shock was said to have been felt coming from
a few points to the south of east. In the Isle of Man the shock was followed
by a sensible vibration from east to west. At Keswick, Gosforth and other
places in Cumberland, the shock was felt to come from the south. In the
counties of Dumfries and Selkirk it was perceived to come from the south-
west. These data appear to indicate pretty clearly that the shock had radi-
ated from some point between Yorkshire and Lancashire, and accordingly it
was stated to have been felt in Newcastle and its neighbourhood, though not
so severely as on the west side of the island.
This shock produced, as might have been expected, sensible effects below
the earth’s surface. It was distinctly felt in the coal-mines between Bury and
Bolton, and alarmed the people so much as to make them run to the bottom
of the shaft and call to be drawn up. In the same neighbourhood some
workmen were engaged in boring, and had gone down about thirty yards, of
which the lowest, ten yards, consisted of rock, above which there was a thick
bed of sand, gravel and marl. On account of the looseness of these materials,
seven or eight yards of the hole was piped with a strong tin casement, out of
which, when the men left the work in the evening preceding the earthquake,
a clear stream of water was issuing. When they returned to their work next
morning the stream was not issuing ; and, moreover, in attempting to put their
boring-irons down the hole, it was found that they would not pass as usual.
The tin casement was then drawn up to be examined, when it was found to
have been completely flattened and slightly bent, so that the light could not
be seen through it. These effects were at the time attributed to the action of
the earthquake on the materials of the strata through which the bore had been
made.
It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the different shocks above referred
to as having occurred in Perthshire, Argyleshire, Wales, and the district of
England last mentioned, all originated in these different localities, or rather in
depths immediately below these respective portions of the earth’s surface. But
whilst, as the experience of former years shows, these districts are very liable
to be affected by earthquakes, they do not seem to have any common bond
of connection. That is to say, a shock which rises up in any one of these
districts is not felt in the others; from which it is reasonable to conclude,
that the cause of the shocks (whatever that may be) was in these cases at
least not seated at any great depth below the surface.
ON EARTHQUAKES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 193
It is supposed by many, that when shocks occur in this country they are
produced by subterranean changes taking place in the volcanic regions of the
earth. If this opinion were well-founded, shocks should occur in this coun-
tty and in those regions almost always at the same time. But seldom is there
such coincidence perceivable ; though of course it may sometimes accidentally
happen, that shocks should occur in this and in some other part of the earth
about the same time. As an example of these accidental coincidences, it
may be observed, that on the 3rd of March 1843, when, as already mentioned,
a shock was felt at Lochgilphead, there was a slight earthquake at Guadaloupe.
But, on the other hand, the more serious earthquake of the 8th of February
1843, which eonvulsed the whole West India Islands, and destroyed several
towns in Saint Domingo, was not marked in this country by any correspond-
ing phenomenon, as would undoubtedly have been the case if the shocks in
this country are produced by the excitement of volcanic action in other re-
ions.
5 The reference now made to the West India earthquake of 8th of February
last, affords an opportunity of submitting to the Association a suggestion for
extending the field of the Committee’s inquiries. Though, by the terms of
thei appointment, they are not expressly limited in their inquiries to Great
Britain, they certainly did not understand that they were to have a wider
range. But if it be an object worthy the attention of the Association to col-
leet from all quarters information calculated to throw light on the causes of
earthquakes, there seems no reason why they should not make it part of the
business of this Committee to receive and digest notices of foreign earthquakes.
The one above referred to, which occurred in the beginning of the present
year in the West Indies, and the effects of which were sensibly felt even in
the Brazils, as well as in Mexico and in Ohio, affords very instructive details,
which the Committee would have gladly availed themselves of but for the
doubt above suggested.
The Committee have had theit attention drawn to this proposed enlarge-
ment of their field of inquiry, by two letters received by one of their number
from two gentlemen, one of whom is now in India, and the other of whom is
about to settle in Peru.
The former gentleman, Lieutenant Baird Smith of the Engineers, and
superintendent of the Doab Canal in Upper India, thus writes from the Hi-
malayas on the 9th of September last :—“ Having occupied myself for some
time past in collecting information relative to the occurrence of earthquakes
throughout British India, I venture to place myself in communication with
you, and through you to offer to the Committee my most cordial co-operation,
so long as I may remain in this country. My attention was first specially
attracted to the subject of earthquake-shocks by the occurrence of that of the
19th of February last, to which many circumstances combined to give to the
English in India a peculiarly exciting interest. Its most destructive influence
was experienced in the valley of Jellalabad, the chief town of which of the
same name was at the moment occupied by the small but gallant brigade
under Sir Robert Sale. The details of this earthquake, which were felt from
Jellalabad to Shalkur in Thibet on the north, and to Saharampore on the
south, I collected as they became known, and have arranged and published
in the local journals. The effect more than equalled my anticipation, for a
large amount of additional information was furnished to me, and I have re-
ceived assurances of active co-operation. Numerous corrections are neces-
sary in my paper on the Jellalabad earthquake, and these it is my intention
to make when I prepare the ‘ Register of Indian Earthquakes for the year
1842,’ materials for which are rapidly accumulating.
124 REPORT—1843.
“It would be a source of pleasure and satisfaction to me to work in con-
nection with the Committee of the British Association, and to receive from it
from time to time such information and advice as would facilitate my labours
here. It has often struck me that the Association, in neglecting any syste-
matic effort to link colonial science with that of the mother country, is losing
noble fields of exertion, and has failed in what ought to have been one of its
essential objects. Looking to India only,—to how many points of the deep-
est interest might not materials be contributed from it? Yet the Association
seeks not to stimulate and guide the necessary inquiries. There are many
qualified men in the Indian army and civil service who require only a little
encouragement to ensure their co-operation in any scientific efforts ; and to
those interested in India, the apathy and indifference regarding it that prevail
at home are painful topics of remark. When the Association was first
established an Indian sub-committee was appointed; but no correspondence
appears to have been maintained with it, and no steps taken to fill vacancies
in it. It is now quite extinct, but might easily be called again into being
and activity were it considered advisable that it should be.”
The letter from which these extracts have been quoted contains some inter-
esting information in regard to those portions of India most affected by earth-
quakes, which it would be out of place to embody in the present report, the
more especially as it was published in the last January Number of the Edin-
burgh Philosophical Journal. But the above extracts are given, in order that
the Association may consider the two points submitted to them by Lieutenant
Smith, viz.—(1.) Whether they will authorise this Committee to receive from
him, to be embodied if they see fit in their annual report, such information as
may be sent to them by him or others in regard to Indian earthquakes. (2.)
Whether the Association would reappoint the Indian sub-committee to which
he refers, the precise objects or duties of which are however not known to the
present reporter.
The other letter above referred to is from Mr. Mathie Hamilton, M.D.,
the author of various articles on South American earthquakes, and on the
Lama, Alpaco, and other animals in South America, which were published in
the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal.
Mr. Hamilton, who has resided for many years in Peru, and had turned
his attention to more than one branch of its natural history, intimates in his
letter the intention of returning to Peru, and of permanently residing there.
The object of Mr. Hamilton’s communication is hinted at in the following
extract from his letter, which is dated the 6th of August 1843 :—“ My object
in this communication is, that if either you or any of your friends would sug-
gest any inquiries connected with the causes and phenomena of earthquakes,
I will most cheerfully, in so far as may be in my power, attend to such sug-
gestions. Iam asubscriber to the book-fund and a life member of the British
Association, and if in any mode I can assist the objects of the Association I
will do so. On the 6th of June last I was at Comrie, and saw some of the
instruments ; I think that the 39-inch pendulum (not the noddy) and the in-
strument which is attached to the wall in Mr. Macfarlane’s attic for measuring
the vertical movements, are those which will be found most convenient in Peru.
I wish to go to the meeting in Cork, but I fear that the necessary arrangements
for my projected voyage may prevent me.”
The member of your Committee to whom Mr. Hamilton addressed this
communication had some conversation with him, and is impressed with the
conviction, that if the Association thinks it desirable to receive information
respecting earthquakes in Peru, a better opportunity could scarcely present
itself than that which now occurs. Considering, as he does, that it is desirable
ON EARTHQUAKES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 125
to receive information on this important and yet ill-understood subject, not
merely from Peru and India, but from every other country where the phe-
nomena are well developed, he would suggest that both Lieutenant Smith’s and
Mr. Hamilton’s offers should be accepted; and, moreover, that two or more
instruments, at the expense of the Association, should be put under Mr. Ha-
milton’s charge, if he will undertake to register their indications and report
them half-yearly to the Committee.
With regard to British earthquakes, and particularly those which occur so
frequently, indeed almost periodically in Perthshire, the Committee entertain
a hope, that if the Association will authorize them to continue their superin-
tendence, they may eventually: gather much information which will prove
valuable in any inquiry into the origin of them. In Perthshire, where instru-
ments have, at the expense of the Association, been erected, it is quite neces-
sary that means should, as before, be supplied to watch and register their in-
dications. There are other two localities in that part of Scotland where instru-
ments should be placed, viz. Ardvoirlich (about ten miles west of Comrie)
and Tyndrum (about forty miles north-west of Comrie). Most of the instru-
ments now in Perthshire are either in the town of Comrie or to the east of it,
and it is considered desirable that there should be the means of marking the
directions of the shocks on opposite sides of the supposed focus of action.
Mr. Stewart, the proprietor of Ardvoirlich, has undertaken the charge of the
instrument proposed to be sent there; and Lord Breadalbane has authorized
the manager of his mines at Tyndrum also to take charge of one, and to re-
gister its indications. Instruments for these places have been ordered.
The Committee take leave to repeat the wish which they expressed in last
year’s report,—to have instruments placed at Comrie for the purpose of mark-
ing more frequently meteorological changes in that district. There is already
at Comrie a barometer and a thermometer belonging to the Association, the
state of which is registered only in the morning and evening. But it would
be desirable that this town should be one of the stations of the Association
for hourly observations of the barometer, for reasons which are well known
to all who have studied the subject. Moreover, if there be any instrument
sufficiently perfect to indicate the varying electrical condition of the earth and
atmosphere, there certainly should be one sent to Comrie.
But perhaps it would be proper to leave this part of the subject in the
hands of the Meteorological Committee of the Association, a duty which it is
understood that they are willing to undertake, and the importance of which is
well appreciated by the convener of that Committee.
(The Committee annexed to their report an account of the expense in-
curred by them during the last year, which amounted only to £10.)
They respectfully suggest that the Committee should be reappointed, with
such additional or such other persons to be members of it as the Association
may see fit, and with the sum of £100 at their disposal, as hitherto. If the
Committee might venture to suggest any new names to the Association, it
would be those of Mr. Darwin, so well known for his paper on South Ame-
rican volcanoes, and also Mr. Mathie Hamilton, if the Association should
agree to the proposal which has been made to them.
Wao. BuckLanp.
Davip MILNE.
126 REPORT—1843.
REGISTER FOR
EXPLA-
A The hours of the day before noon indicated by A, the hours after noon indi-
the after-
B Marking the least perceptible shock as 1, and a shock equal to that on Oct, 23, 1839, as 10,
loud as the shock re-
C If the concussion be single, to be marked C; if double, CC; but if the second be smaller
: would indicate two shocks, the
D Entered C, H, or T, according as it is a Crash, Heave, or Tremor, or two, or all;
indicate a shock beginning with a slight concussion, then a considerable heave, and
the three qualities
E The first column here is merely for entering the direction the shock appeared to the
the Dip to be entered of course only where the
F In like manner, in these columns the height of Barometer and Thermometer is en-
wind indicated by 1 for the gentlest current,
G Where there is no vain-gauge the quantity of rain to be marked in general by the letters
A B Cc D E F
* Dura- .
Time of the |Violence| ,- = go ; hs
: tionin| 5 Direction, Instant of Shock.
Year day. of the Seconds. z 4“
e
1842-3.| 7] & E
ms = Marked by the 2 :
| a Seismometer. Wind. 8
‘DB g | 5 3)
= s | eae (aes : S “I
Day of i} Cf se\es les] & Bes ou4|' ee
the AS he |. 1.18 1] | $.|en) ee] o3 |. B/s/a|#
month. o |S (| sii sie] 8 |e] se |S SE se) 2 ELBE] s
BlElSig|S\e E 3 a8 bao oe if/ £| 2
£12/2\8\8|4'8|8 || 2 BP iat! & IR|O\al a
July 1.| 2] 30 | P| 1 | ese | gee | vee | vee toe me ee ae op [see lieped yee fe se
=A PORS Soy | oP awe '
—? Bil oy Ai 1
——ie) Ss 1a0 | © | als rt halt - : z Big Oop pecan TE
Aug. ? | PJ.) P| Pf oe] ow | - ren BS . ps Ls « abel aaeld lake Miles
— ? ? wee ? ?
— ? cr, ?
— 27.| 11 | 45 | P| 1 | oer jree | oe | ove a af ae oer | ogee sepcy figs. sveametaneiens
Sept. 2.! 3]...) A] 1]. ]e see . . ‘ see | oe |, coe | che | uae
——n 24.1 5153) Al 3| 4] 31 316 C/etT Wow | ate toes deed Bd. Gl
——24,|-6|59] P| 2| 3] 3] 3] C.jcTtiNW] W eB we» |29°528 553) N| 2) D
——25.| ?|..) Al 1
— 25,, Pla.) All
Oct. see] vce | cae | ase fi von | co ose “ae oes oes see ia sons] amy ih Gat htnesan:
Nov.1G.'|! 13 | -sccs |) Bay. Billloan| vay thaebbnease age besa lateen a *tevenilerseat'o| Mea Ycbnn ast Gea eee nae
Se go, ia ian [oe WL Ty opp edi oe t ie Cd ies ate ea TARE eee A fobs
Dec. 4.| 2} ..}/ A] 0} 2] 0} 1] o « oop aie ans diopel |. exer -aepeecnee
PEs A amet heel ies ne 1 1 | ove t cer . . t. wan. looses ketit Lomelnane
ear, \imaioscewedr BT Lot ob Le dreeqink |
megs (4 i al PS ES 1 1 1 1 = t
Jan. Beta Case Rab fo eee WP acd Pate | See Y —ene hae tse os) vee | s ses | tee hee [Pees
Feb. wood app | cee soe | owe - eee ose one . or hey pee * ees | eee .
Mar.23,| 8|)30| P| 2/ 2} 2/ 3 . et . . . eee | 29°12 © | 1 |e
ee OS. DAN ese SP Reged [eerluces | vas t gis a oop oo VRQ. Habs | poll cael] Lone
April, | see | vee | eee | see | eee | cee | oe . oe or " ate eee | eee | cee | age | oe
May 14.| 2 |e | Aj 2] Lj cee | ad oer t kes ae a, eet : spe ed at
i—— 14.| 2 “i oe el a” | sea paagh 4 t rs eee oon - eat seo | os ee
ge | 2 1] 20) HP ood |) SE. ata as Soa si ie se ST Ra ee OTe ee ne]
June 4. - i3| P|) 2] 2/8) 3| C | T | E [E&W) & | se | oe | oe] one | oon] Cle
ea Ae P
TO SONAL Re Rb al a Bela pag ae pee ences ae : aes | anes
TON Shee (AN a DO reed |
— 15.| ae Af dodo] thea shoes ey a3 wa ooo. |usnadlaimas
ee rN) scot GA PAR iy Hs ee T = = af a 5 dee | aan {| cane es
Laka
ON EARTHQUAKES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 127
EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS.
NATIONS.
cated by P; thus, 4 o’clock in the morning is marked in the Table 4 A ; 4 o’clock in
noon, 4 P,
and intermediate degrees of intensity by intermediate numbers ; thus, one half as violent or
ferred to, to be entered 5.
than first (which is almost always the case) the latter to be marked with a small c; thus C c
second weaker than the first.
using the small letters here too to mark the relative force of each; thus cH t would
ending in a slight tremor; and C HT, one such as that of Oct. 23, 1839, where all
were intense.
observer to proceed from, most needed in slight shocks that do not affect the instruments ;
instrument enables the observer to ascertain it.
tered only by those observers who have such instruments at hand. The strength of the
and 10 for a hurricane; and a calm, 0.
M, much, and L, little.
F G
Five minutes after 3 = &
Shock. g|.€ &
S I a]
o fo} >
B| & zg
2 sé ss Other particulars not included in preceding list, that
Wind. | & | 8 Sa as
v @ = a = Ag might be considered as either directly or indi-
5 o};s £"s Ss
g os]. 5/2 g5 rs PI rectly connected with the shocks.
S/E/Ela/#)5).° a
elElsleltlel = 2
gE /S(2\8le |e] & <
A |HIAl/alana|&
vs | se: [July 2°59\ July 29°78 July 1. Fine day and night. Wind westerly.
xe | Seas aus tere’|.:aes Wen \eabaaprene semeuee [July 10. Wind 3 A
Spe eed reap eet etd tn? laoreet y ind moderate and westerly. Day showery.
A eeeeeeee
aes Aug. 27. Beautiful sunny morning. Light easterly wind.
see | ae» | eee (Sept. 2°86 5 srs i weil ings gy 08 |
Sept.24, Barometer and thermometer were stationary for
three quarters of an hour after shock, At Comrie
shake most violent in middle; at Cluan most violent
in commencement, Whilst one of Seismometers
see | nee | coe | see | one | -se [Oct. 0°88/Oct, 20°87 had head thrown to north-west one-eighth of an
tee | eee | eee | vee | eee | eee |NOV. 280) Nov. 29°62} inch, another of a different kind thrown west to same
extent,
. -| a eee | ssseuee |Nov. 29. Fine day, but cloudy and showery.
wee | ase | eee | eee | eee | eee Dec. 6°10/Dec, 29°75|Dec. 4, Morning and evening cloudy, A red sun-set,
Dipti cated capdgl saan dared Siebul) asidasape semeuee |Dec, 17. Cloudy and showery day; towards evening rain
and wind. These three shocks served only at Tom-
perran, not at Comrie,
+» |Jan, 2°91 Jan. 29°43
+ | see | oe [Feb 1°04) Feb. 29°69
29°12} ...| E| 0| D | M |Mar. 3-22)Mar. 29:72|March 23. Day very foggy, dark and rainy; very heavy
| M eae at4p.m. Barometer at 9 a.m. 29°17 ; at 9 p.m.
29°35,
one | cee | cee | one | one | one oral 5°17| Apr. 29°59
L |May 3°56)/May 29:60|May 14. Showers and cloudy ; a blink at noon; at 1 p.m.
pa) | oda and after, chill and cloudy.
i geet MOI Way ie a A bate A sessesree | May 28, eer: cold wind ; slight showers after 5 p.m.,
very cold.
M |June 2'22)June 29'90|June 4. The first shock felt with equal severity at Com-
rie, Clatheck (two miles east) Invergeldy (six miles
north of Comrie). The seeond shock observed only at
Clatheck,
web) A omey if bees] oe) | any ds DE] | ce cssepae ssuse+, |June 10, Cloudy, with occasional sunshine; rather cold,
and windy evening.
weal Mace Yack | Meee 1 MIC’ ddeore Ba abhshae June 15. Clear sunshine and very warm. Two additional
shocks thought to have occurred today.
Cie taal ge cis Mee te DE eR sees |JUne 17, Clear sunshine and very warm.
128 REPORT—1843.
Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive
Balloons.
TuE requisite apparatus is nearly complete. The balloon, 18 feet in diameter
and 25 feet high, has been received at Woolwich by Colonel Sabine. Mr.
Wheatstone’s electric thermometer has been tried, and found to act in the
most perfect manner at distances of some miles, and we have ordered the
addition of another part for giving the hygrometric indications. A series of
experiments has been made on the strength and weight of cordage of various
kinds of fibre; the proper quality has been decided on, and I am happy to
state that Mr. Enderby, who has taken great interest in these inquiries, will
present the necessary quantity of it to the Association.
Of the original grant of 2501, 810. 8s. have been expended.
The Directors of the Woolwich Gas-works have shown every wish to ac-
commodate us, and assisted us in our preliminary experiments so as to make
the inflation of the balloon perfectly manageable.
To complete the advantages of our position at Woolwich, I would suggest
it as extremely desirable that a request should be made by the Association to
the Master-General of the Ordnance, entreating his assistance.
T. R. Roginson,
August 17, 1843. Chairman of the Committee.
Appendix to the Report, by Professor WHEATSTONE.
Tue Telegraph Thermometer which is intended to be carried up by the bal-
loon, weighs, with its case, about four pounds. It is thus constructed :—The
movement of a small clock causes a vertical rack to ascend and descend re-
gularly in six minutes, three minutes being occupied in the ascent and three
in the descent. The rack carries a fine platina wire, which moves within the
tube of a thermometer; the extent of motion of this wire corresponds with
28° of the thermometric scale, but it is capable of adjustment so that it may
pass over any 28° of the range. ‘Two very fine copper wires, covered with
silk, and of sufficient length to reach from the ground to the balloon when at
its greatest elevation, are connected with the instrument in the following man-
ner :—The extremity of one wire is connected with the mercury in the bulb
of the thermometer, and that of the other wire with the frame of the clock,
which is in metallic continuity with the platina wire. On the ground the
lower extremities are united together; in the wire, whose opposite end is con-
nected with the mercury in the thermometer, a sensible galvanometer is in-
terposed, and in the course of the other wire a single, very small voltaic ele-
ment is introduced. The galvanometer having been properly adjusted to its
zero point, it will remain so during the time that the platina wire is not in
contact with the mercury in the tube, but the needle will deviate as soon as
the contact takes place, and will remain deflected until contact is again
broken during the ascent of the rack. During each half-second of time, cor-
responding with the beats of the clock, the wire moves through the 360th
part of its range, and a different point of the range consequently corresponds
with a different beat or half-second of each alternate three minutes. If, there-
fore, an observer below be furnished with a chronometer timed to coincide
with the clock in the balloon above, and note at what instant the needle of
the galvanometer is deflected, he may infer from that observation the tempe-
rature indicated by the thermometer in the balloon; for according to the dif-
ferent expansion of the mercury in the thermometer the contact is broken at
a different half-second. Should the rates of the two time-pieces not exactly
correspond at the conclusion of a series of observations, the results will not
be vitiated, as a correction may be easily made.
ON THE HABITS OF THE MARINE TESTACEA. 129
It is intended to add to this apparatus a wet-pulb thermometer; this will
involve only the addition of another platina wire to the rack, and of another
insulated wire, reaching from the balloon to the earth, with its interposed
galvanometer.
For other meteorological instruments, the indications of which are to be
transmitted to a distance, I occasionally employ the agency of electro-mag-
netism to ring a bell, to mark with a type or pencil, &c.; but for the purpose
in question such methods cannot be so conveniently employed as the deflection
of the needle of a galvanometer, on account of the necessity of having the
long conducting wire extremely fine in order to avoid adding too much to the
weight of the balloon. If the electro-motive force of the rheomotor were in-
creased, which it would be necessary to do were stronger currents required,
sparks would occur at the surface of contact of the mercury, which would pro-
duce injurious effects.
Report of the Committee for the Translation and Publication of
Foreign Scientific Memoirs.
Since the last meeting of the British Association the Committee have ob-
tained and published in the 10th and 11th Numbers of Taylor’s “ Scientific
Memoirs,” translations of the four following works, viz.—
1. Gauss’s Dioptric Researches.
2. Dr. Lamont’s Account of the Magnetical Instruments in use at the
Observatory in Munich.
3. Gauss on the Magnetic Inclination at Gottingen.
4. Dr.Lamont’s Results of Three Years’ Magnetical Observations at Munich.
The first of these translations was presented to the Committee by Professor
Miller of Cambridge, and the three others by Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. A plate
accompanying the translation of one of Dr. Lamont’s memoirs has been en-
graved at the expense of the Association, but as the account of its cost, though
requested some time since, has not yet been sent in, there has been no expen-
diture under the direction of the Committee in the past year.
(Signed in the name of the Committee) Epwarp SaBINE.
On the Habits of the Marine Testacea. By C. W. Peacn.
THE author commenced with stating that Purpura lapillus deposits its nidi
all the year round, but most actively in the first four months of the year; the
young escape from the nidi in about four months.
Buccinum reticulatum deposits its nidi on weeds, stones, and the wicker-
work of the store pots of the crab-catchers; they are strung together and
overlie each other like the brass scales on the straps used for holding on the
caps of soldiers ; they are of the shape of the spade on playing cards,
The author is of opinion that the Patella levis and Patella pellucida are
the same shell, the one being the young state of the other. He then went
on to describe the Fissurella nubecula, and to show that this shell has a
serrated instead of a plain margin, and that the apex is surrounded by three
teeth. In consequence of it having been asserted at the Meeting of the
British Association at Plymouth that the Saxicava rugosa was not an inha-
bitant of deep water, the author stated that he had got specimens alive in
limestone five leagues from the land and in thirty fathoms water. Pholas
lamellata was found also under similar circumstances in red sandstone. He
1843. K
130 REPORT—1843.
next proceeded to describe the Pholas dactylus which he had found in clay-
slate in Cornwall, and to describe particularly the form and actions of the
animal, which he had kept alive in his house more than a month (there were
fifteen or sixteen shells of all sizes), and although he marked the slab in
which they were, he could not perceive that they turned round for the purpose
of boring. In the same slab he also found Pholas parva.
Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Algean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology, By B>wARrp ForBEs,
F.L.S., M.W.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College, London.
Tue ‘British Association having done me the honour of requesting a report
on the Mollusca and Radiata inhabiting the /Egean and Red Seas, considered
more especially in their bearings on questions of distribution and of geology,
I have now the pleasure of laying before this meeting such portion of it as
relates to the eastern Mediterranean. The data upon which it is founded
have been entirely derived from personal research during a voyage of eigh-
teen months in the 2gean, when but few days passed by without being devoted
to natural history observations. The calculations in the following pages have
been based upon more than 100 fully recorded dredging operations in various
depths, from 1 to 130 fathoms, and in many localities from the shores of the
Morea to those of Asia Minor, besides numerous coast observations whenever
opportunity offered. The circumstances under which these researches were
made were peculiarly propitious. The merit of the results obtained is mainly
due to Captain Graves in command of the Mediterranean Survey, at whose
invitation the reporter joined H.M.S. Beacon as Naturalist, in April 1841,
from which time, until his departure for England in October 1842, every
possible assistance and means of observation were put at his disposal by that
distinguished officer, and every cooperation afforded by the officers of the
Survey. Without such aid it would have been quite impossible to have ob-
tained the results now laid before the Association, which, from their having
been made in connection with the Hydrographical Survey, may assume a
value to which no private observations could lay claim*.
The Aegean Sea, although most interesting to the naturalist as the scene
of the labours of Aristotle, has been but little investigated since his time.
The partially-published observations of Sibthorpe, and the great French work
on the Morea, include the chief contributions to its natural history. In the
last-named work are contained catalogues of the Fishes and Mollusea, with
notices of one or two Annelides. In all the marine tribes my lists greatly
exceed the French catalogues, more than doubling the number of Fishes, and
exceeding that of Mollusea by above 160 species, not to mention Radiata,
Amorphozoa and Articulata. In the present report I propose to give an
account of the distribution of the several tribes of Mollusea and Radiata in
the eastern Mediterranean, exhibiting their range in depth, and the cireum-
stances under which they are found; to inquire into the laws which appear
* A great portion of the observations among the Cyclades were made jointly with Lieut.
Spratt, Assistant Surveyor of the Beacon, and of those relating to the coasts of Asia Minor with
Mr. Hoskyn, late Master of the Beacon, and now Assistant Surveyor of H.M.S. Lucifer. Many
independent observations of great value to the author were made by Lieut, Freeland, Lieut.
Mansell, Mr. Chapman, and other officers of the Beacon, and he is desirous of recording his
thanks to all the gentlemen named for their kindness in placing their collections at his disposal.
He is happy to say that the A.gean researches have not ceased with his departure, Capt. Graves
and his officers being actively engaged in natural history investigations in addition to their
many scientific duties during the survey now in progress of the Island of Candia.
——
am at um elt me ay TE
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 131
to regulate their distribution, and to show the bearings of the investigation
on the science of geology.
I shall commence with an enumeration of the species of Mollusca and.
Radiata, prefacing the tabular view of each tribe with a few general remarks.
Mo.ttusca.
Cephalopoda.
Octopus vulgaris and macropodius, Sepia officinalis and Sepiola rondeletii,
were the cuttle-fishes which I met with in the eastern Mediterranean. They
are all inhabitants of the shallows, and are found in or near the littoral zone,
where they are much sought after by the Greeks as articles of food. They
are speared at night by torchlight when on their foraging excursions. The
sandy shores of the island are thickly covered with the shell of the Sepia,
sometimes forming beds of considerable thickness. In no instance did the
shell occur when dredging, so that we may suppose that species to be con-
fined to the littoral zone. The Sepiola rondeletii was taken on the coast of
Asia Minor, as deep as 29 fathoms in a bottom of weed. Octopus macro-
podius only occurred once, and then among the rocks near watermark, in the
Island of Cerigo, at the entrance of the Agean. The Argonauta was much
sought after, but never found. It is, however, a recorded inhabitant of the
shores of Greece.
Pieropoda.
Eight species of Pteropoda, members of the genera Hyalea, Cleodora and
Criseis, inhabit the AXgean, and appear to be equally diffused in all parts of
the eastern Mediterranean. The white mud which forms the sea bottom
between 100 and 200 fathoms abounds with their remains, many hundreds
coming up in a single dredge, chiefly Criseis and Cleodora. In the muddy
deposits of upper regions they are scarce, in those of shallow water altogether
absent. Though immense numbers of their dead shells were taken, compa-
ratively few of these testacea occurred in a living state. Of the eight species
four were taken alive, three of which were Criseis, and the fourth Hyalea
tridentata. The last was only observed once in the Bay of Cervi, at the en-
trance of the AXgean, in August 1841: the Crisets were abundant in the
spring of the same year. They usually abound about three hours after noon
and towards nightfall, sparkling in the water like needles of glass. Through-
out the summer and autumn they were very seldom met with. It would
appear that great flocks of Pteropoda live in the deeper parts of the sea,
ascending to the surface only occasionally, and at definite seasons. That
their range in depth is limited, is evident from the fact that their remains
abound only between 100 and 200 fathoms, diminishing above and below that
region.
Nucleobranchiata.
Seven species of undoubted Nucleobranchiata, with three probable mem-
bers of that order, inhabit the Zgean, representatives of genera, four of
which are shell-bearing and two naked. _The observations regarding habitat
and time of appearance apply equally to the members of this order and those
of the last, with the exception of the Jirole, which may be seen during most
months of the year. Of the testaceous nucleobranes, the Atlanta peronii
and two species of Zadas appear to be universally diffused in the Agean.
Carinaria is very rare, having only occurred twice, and then dead. A little
shell of Bellerophon-like appearance is abundant in the mud of great depths,
and from its resemblance to the young state of Carinaria | have placed it
here. Two species of that very anomalous genus Sagitéa were met with
K 2
132 REPORT—1843.
occasionally, and were frequently examined in the hope of throwing new light
on their true position in the animal kingdom. All the uaked nucleobranes
of the AZgean are extremely active animals, rapid in their movements, and
ferocious in their habits.
Pteropoda and Nucleobranchiata.
No. of | No. of
i Mediter-
ce a ranean Observations.
Species.
a
PTEROPODA.
Hyalea, Lam. ..--- 3 4.
1. tridentata, Forsh. .\......|.++--- Living, Cervi. Dead, Lycia, VIII.
2. gibbosa, Rang. . «|..++-+|.++-
3. vaginellina, Cantr..|...
Cleodora, Per. and Less.
1. cuspidata, Bose. .|..
2. pyramidata, Péron.|...
Criseis, Rang ..--+--
1. spinifera, Rang . .|....--
2. striata, Rang... .|.....-
§. clava, Rang... -|...-.
..|Dead in Region VIII., common.
. Dead in Region VIIL, frequent.
.++-..(Dead, v.r. Region VIII.
.....-(Dead, common. Region VIII.
3 [abundant.
......|Living, common. Dead, R. VIIL.,
...... |Living,rare. Dead,R.VIII.frequent.
.|...... (Living, common. Dead, R. VIIL.,
abundant.
NucLEOBRANCHIATA.
Atlanta, Less....+--+ 1 1
1. peronii, Less. . - «|... eeleeesee Living,rare. Dead, R. VIUI.frequent.
Ladas, Cantr.....--+. ] 2
1. planorboides, Ford. |......|..++ ++ Dead, R. VIII., not rare.
? Bellerophina, D’Orb. . 1 1
]. minuta, Forb. ...|...
Carinaria, Lam. .... 1 : 1
1. mediterranea, Per.|......|...-..|Dead, R. VIL, v.r. Nid.
Peracle, Forb. ....-- 1 1
1. physoides, Ford. .|..
Firola, Per. and Less. .
1. frederica, Less... .|...
2. hyalina, Forsk. ..|...
. «. (Dead, R. VIII, not common.
5
s+. «.|Frequent.
«+ .e+. (Frequent.
Do Bes. 4 b,ieper's' aha | tr Py Fe
Sagitta, Q. and Gaim. 2 |2or3
1. mediterranea, Forb.|......|.+-... Not frequent.
2.Sp.alt.? ...+-- ......|Not frequent.
Gasteropoda Nudibranchia.
The absence of tides is extremely unfavourable to the presence of animals
of this beautiful tribe, nevertheless numerous species are recorded as inhabit-
ants of the Mediterranean. In the eastern division of that sea, however, they
are scarce, and but seldom met with. The only species observed in any
quantity was a large red Doris (D. argo) which frequents the rocks of
the coast of Lycia, close to the water-mark, laying its bright red spawn in
sponge-like masses on their surface. Another member of this genus was
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 133
found at a depth as great as fifty fathoms. Of the allied genus Goniodoris
several very beautiful species were obtained. The characteristic Nudibranc
of the Mediterranean, a giant among its tribe, Tethys leporina, was only met
with once, swimming foot up on the surface of the sea in the Gulf of Smyrna,
in an exhausted state, its sides being infested by that extraordinary parasite
the Vertumnus tethydicola. Out of fifteen species of Nudibranchia taken
in the Aigean, three are certainly, and four probably identical with species
inhabiting the coast of Great Britain, living at similar depths and under
similar circumstances.
Nudibranchia.
Ground. Locality. Geographical
Range.
5 ‘| fathoms.
coccinea, Ford...cseclecsess|esceeeees| 30-45 weedy Syra, Naxia. {Med., Celt. Seas.
testudinaria 2, Cuv.|.c..s.Jesceeeee.| dit. rock, Lycia. Celtic, North.
ANZO, Lins. rccocrerses|ecseeeleccecseces| lit. rock Lycia. :
aUirata, For Deeceesseeferseer|ssseceeee| 50 — [resccseeescesesvenreeees|CYClades:
Pilosa, Mul. ...cccsss|eeveesfecsceeee| 13 weedy. Cyclades. Med., Celt., N.S.
Goniodoris, Forb. ...| ? 4
gracilis, Rupp.cecccsieceserfecsseeeee} 40 weedy Cyclades.
Vivida, FOrb....erecsleceeesleseserses| 8-28 weedy Cyclades
tenerrima, Ford, ...|ssseelsecseeeee| 40 weedy. Cyclades
cenceeccsecscecesoeesees|SKANOUSI.
regalis, Ford. sessssJececes|eeceeesee) lite
Tethys, Lin.....s0..00+
leporina, Lin. ......{eceess|eesereees| pelagic.
Tritonia, Cuv. sesveeses
plebeia, Johnst......
Scyllea, Lin. secre
pelagica, Lin. ......|sceessleccevones 4
Meliboea, Rang ......
G. of Smyrna. |Mediterranean.
Sec eeeeeetsteesescesnees
seesesess| 25 {mud and corallines.|G. of Smyrna. |Med., Celt. Seas.
zostera. Milo. Mediterranean.
mud and corallines.jG. of Smyrna. |Med., Cel’. Seas.
2 minuta, Ford. ..sse|sesees|scsceveee 5 weed. Despotico.
Eolida, Cuv....ssserees 1
embletoni, Johnst.?)....e.[eceeeseee| lite stony. Paros.
Elysia, Risso.
timida, Risso ...... 1 lit. rocky. Paros. Celtic Seas.
Gasteropoda, Inferobranchiata, Tectibranchiata, Scutibranchiata, Cyclo-
branchiata, and Cirrhobranchiata.
Of these orders there are sixty /Egean species, among which six are Infero-
branchiata, twenty-two Tectibranchiata, fifteen Scutibranchiata, eleven Cyclo-
branchiata, and one Cirrhobranchiata. Of the sixty species fifty-one have
calcareous shells, the remainder belonging to the genera Aplysia, Pleuro-
branchus, and Gasteropteron. The genus Doridium was not met with. Of
the testaceous species eight are new, four inhabiting very deep water. Of
the remainder, Bulla convoluta has hitherto been known only in a fossil
state. Thirteen species range to the British Seas. Four or five testaceous
species, inhabiting the western Mediterranean, do not reach the /Egean.
Associated with the Dentalia are several species of tubico/ar annelides of the
genus Ditrupa, most of them inhabiting very deep water. The slight con-
traction of the mouth of the shell in this curious genus enables us to distin-
guish between it and its molluscan analogue when the animal is absent.
134
Species.
INFEROBRANCHIATA.
Pleurobranchus, Cuv.
aurantiacus, Risso
limacoides, Forb. . -
scutatus, Forb. ..-
calyptreoides, Ford.
sordidus, Forb. .. +
Umbrella, Lam.
mediterranea, Lam. .
TECTIBRANCHIATA.
Aplysia, Lin.
depilans? Lin. . -
depressa, Cantr.. - -
saltator, Forb. ..-
Icarus, Forb.
gravesi, orb... ++
Bullea, Lam.
aperta, Zin. .--+->
angustata? Bivon. -
alata, Ford. «.+--
Bulla, Lin.
lignaria, Zin. ..--
retifer, Forb. ...-
akera, Mul. ....-
hydatis, Lin.
cornea, Lam. ...-+
striata, Brug. ...--
utriculus, Broc... -
convoluta, Broce. . -
turgidula, Ford... .
cretica, Forb. ....-
truncata, Adams ..
truncatula, Brug... -
striatula, Ford. ...
Gasteropteron, Meckel.
meckelii, Kosse .. -
Volva, Montf.
? acuminata, Brug. .
ScuTIBRANCHIATA.
Haliotis, Lin.
lamellosa, Zam... -
Crepidula, Lam.
fornicata, Zin... . +
unguiformis, Lam. .
Calyptrea, Lam.
sinense, Lin.
REPORT—1843.
Range.
fathoms.
40
lit.
20
20
40
70
lit. ?
10-20
7-55
Found
living at
fathoms.
40
lit.
20
20
40
lit.
0)
10-20
“7-40
= | Geographical
— E | Distribution.
weedy. vr
rocky. |r.
weedy. ver
weedy. v.r,
weedy. ver
nullipore. —|v.r.
mud. f. \Lus., Celt., N.
mud. hey ate
weedy. L,r
weedy. 1.
weedy. ]. \Lus., Celt., N.
mud. v.r.
mud. Vets
nullipore. _ |v. r.|Lus. Celt, N.
weedy. v.¥.
weedy. y. 1, Lus., Celt., N.
mud. ], |Lus., Celt., N.
mud. a.
mud. 1:
mud, nullipore.| 1.
weed. ie
mud. Vv.
mud. v.r.
mud. 1, |Celt., N.
sand, mud, &c.| a.
mud. f.
mud. Wate
weed. v.r.
rock. if
MET REY 1
shelly. f, \Senegal.
shelly ], |Lus., Celt., N.
| [£ux
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA.
135
. Found
Species. Range. livifig at
Capulus, De Montf. | fathoms. | fathoms.
ungaricus, Zin....... 105 0
Emarginula, Lamk.
eancellata, Phil. ...| 100 0
elongata, Costa.......| 40-100 40
huzardii, Payr....... 0
capuliformis, Phil. .| 40-95 40
Fissurella, Brug.
neglecta, Desh.......| lit. lit.
greeca, Lin. .........| 14-95 24:
gibba, Phil. .........| lit. lit.
Lottia, Gray.
gussoni, Costa ......| 41-69 0
unicolor, Forb.......| 55-150 | 60-105
Gadinia, Gray.
garnoti, Payr. ......| lit.? 0
‘CYCLOBRANCHIATA.
Patella, Lin.
scutellaris, Zam. ...|)
ferruginea, Gm. ...| | 1; :
bonnardi, Payr. alt He ae
lusitanica, Gm. ......|J
Chiton, Lin. ‘
squamosus, Zin. ...| lit. lit.
freelandi, Forb.......| 30-50 | 30-50
cajetanus, Bl. ...... lit. lit.
rissoi, Payr. .......4. 5-10 5-10
polii, Philo... .ccces. 4 4
levis, Penn. .........| 31-80 | 31-80
fascicularis, Zin. ...| _ lit. lit.
CIRRHOBRANCHIATA.
Denialium, Lin.
9-costatum, Lam....| 4-150 7-70
multistriatum?,Desh.| ‘7-10 (0)
entalis, Zin. .........) 1-16 Fi
fissura, Lam.......... 10 0
rubescens, Desh. ...| 20-28 | 20-25
quinquangulare, For.) 80-230 | 150-230
Ground.
© | Geographical
f& | Distribution.
i | ts ee eo |
nullipore.
nullipore.
nullipore.
nullipore.
rock.
weed, &c.
rock.
nullipore.
nullipore.
rock.
rock.
nullipore.
rock.
stony.
stony.
nullipore.
stony.
weed, &c.
weed, &c.
weed, &c.
Weed.
mud.
Vv. Y./Lus., Celt., N.
v.Yr.
f. \Can.
a.
f. |Lus., Celt., N.
a. |Can.
Lus., Celt., N.
. |Lus., Celt., N.,
[{Can.
a. |Lus.
Yr.
r. |Lus., Celt., N.
v.Yr.
1.
as
Note.—The figures in the first column of the above and following tables indicate
the extent of the range at which the species was met with, whether alive or dead; in
the second, the greatest and least depth at which it was taken alive; in the third, the
kind of sea-bottom is named ; in the fourth, the letters express the degree of frequency
of occurrence :—a, abundant, generally distributed and plentiful ; f, frequent; 1, local,
more or less plentiful in a few localities; r, rare; and v.-r, very rare, when but few
examples occurred.
In the fifth column, the extra-Mediterranean distribution (as far
as known with certainty) is given, the European seas being divided into Arctic, North-
ern, Celtic, Lusitanian, and Huxine.
the Canary Islands.
The abbreviation ‘‘ Can.’’ refers to the seas of
136 REPORT—1843.
Gasteropoda Pulmonifera.
A single marine species of this order, Auricula myosotis of Draparnaud, is
found under stones in muddy places on the shores of several of the Cyclades,
and also, though local, on the coast of Asia Minor. It ranges to the shores
of Britain.
Gasteropoda Pectinibranchiata.
One hundred and ninety species inhabit the gean. Of these ninety-eight
are Holostomatous univalves, eighty-two Siphonostomatous, and ten Convo-
lute. There are among them thirty-four new species, one-half of which in-
habit great depths. More than two-thirds of the Holostomata do not range
beyond fifty fathoms in depth, whilst of the Siphonostomatous and Convo-
luted univalves more than half the species exceed that limit. Of the first
division, twenty-two species extend their range to the British shores, ten of
the second, and two of the third. Eight species of pectinibranchiate univalves
now living in the Egean have hitherto been observed only in a fossil state.
Two of them, viz. Fusus crispus and Buccinum semistriatum, have long been
regarded as characteristic shells of certain tertiary formations.
Of species recorded as inhabitants of the western Mediterranean which
were not met with in the eastern, there are twenty-four Holostomata, twenty
Siphonostomata, and nine Convolute.
Nearly a third of the following one hundred and ninety Pectinibranchiata
are found fossil in the pliocene deposits of the Archipelago, mingled with
species of a more southern character, some of which, as Terebra duplicata
and Phorus agglutinans, ave existing inhabitants of the Red Sea. In the
corresponding tertiaries of Sicily, Atlantic species occur of which there are
no traces either recent or fossil in the Egean. These facts would seem to in-
dicate the connexion of a Mediterranean basin on the one hand with the
Indian Ocean by the Red Sea, and on the other with the Celtic Seas during
the last tertiary period. ;
Pectinibranchiata.
. Found a eographi
Species. Range. scaalek Ground. = ieee
Coriocella, Blainv. fathoms. | fathoms.
perspicua, Gmmel. .. 69 OF hs Geeta V. I. Lus., Celt.
Natica, Brug.
millepunctata, Zam.| 10-70 0 weely. 1. |Lus.
valenciensii, Payr. .| 10-60 10 weedy. l.
pulchella, Risso.. ... 2-80 | 20-45 |weedy,nullipore} f.
guilleminii, Payr...| 13-20 a poe Se ceeee r.
olla, M. de Serres..| 4-10 4-7 sand. ]
Eulima, Risso.
polita, Mont....... .. ee Ne | 4a 5 ata sand. f. |Lus., Celt., N.
distorta, Desh. 69-140 | ...... weedy. l. \Can.
nitida, Lam..........| 25-41 | 41 weedy, nullipore, 1.
subulata, Don......| 7-140 29 weedy. - |Celt., N.
unifasciata, Ford. ...| 69 L seneate nullipore. |v. r.
Parthenia, Lowe.
acicula, Phil......... 10-41 30 weedy. l. |
pallida, Phil.......... 41 OSA ae Oe ar 98s v. I.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA.
137
Species. Range.
Parthenia, Lowe. fathoms.
ventricosa, Forb. ...| 110-150
turris, Ford... 1.60.) seneee
elegantissima, Mon.| 4-31
sealaris, Phil.. ......| 30
fasciata, Ford. ......| 110-150
varicosa, Forb. ...... 29
humboldti, Riss. ...| lit. ?
Odostomia, Flem.......
| conoidea, Broc...... 7-41
Truncatella, Risso ..
truncatula, Drap....| _ lit.
Rissoa, Frem.
desmaresti, Forb. ... 10
( = costata, Desm.)
ventricosa, Desm....| 10-80
oblonga, Desm....... 10
violacea, Desm...... 7-16
monodonta, Bivon..| sublit.
radiata, Phil......... 10
rubra, Adams. ...... sublit.
cancellata, Desm....| sublit.
cimicoides, Ford. ...| 2-69
granulata, Phil.,.... 19
montagui, Payr. ...| 10-29
buccinoides? Desh. . +
reticulata, Mont. ...| 30-185
ovatella, Ford. ......| 69-150
acuta, Desm.... ..... 4-110
pulchella, Phil....... 10-31
conifera, Mont....... 10
striata, Adams....... 20
_ cingilus, Mont.......| 20
_ pulehra, Ford. ......| lit.
elongata, Phil. ...... 25
Littorina, Fer.
coerulescens, Zin....| lit.
Fossarus, Phil.
adansoni, Phil. ...... lit.
Scalaria, Lam.
communis, Zam. ... 10
lamellosa, Zam. ...| sublit.?
planicosta, Bivon...| 45
hellenica, Forb....... 110
Turritella, Lam.
triplicata, Broc....... 6-95
terebra, Zin.......... 7-60
suturalis, Ford. ..... 25
Vermetus, Adanson
gigas, Bivon......... sublit.
sublamellatus, Bivon| lit.
Found
living at
fathoms.
4-29
sublit.
10
4
55
0
0
10-31
sublit.
(0)
Ground.
nullipore.
mud.
weed.
sand.
sand, weed.
sand.
mud.
mud,weed, sand.
mud.
mud.
sand ?
mud.
sand.
sand.
sand, weed.
sand.
sand, weed.
mud.
nullipore, mud.
mud.
weed, mud.
weed, &c.
sand.
nullipore.
nullipore.
sand.
nullipore.
rock.
rock.
mud.
sand.
nullipore.
mud.
mud, &c.
mud.
mud.
rock, &c.
rock, &c.
Geographical
Sj
f& | Distribution.
* |Celt., N., Can.
- |Lus., Celt.
- |Lus., Celt.
Lus.
- |Lus., Celt.
Lus., Celt., N.
Lus.
. |General in N.
& S. Atlantic,
[Eux.
Lus., Celt., N.
. |Lus., Can.
Can.
Lus., Celt., N.
138
Species. Range.
Vermetus, Adanson. | fathoms.
arenarius, Desh. ...| _ lit.
glomeratus, Lin. ...| lit.
eranulatus, Forb....| _ lit.
corneus, Ford. 25-48
Siliquaria, Brug.
anguina, Gimel. 45-69
Nerita, Lin.
viridis, Zim. ......0+ 4-24
Adeorbis, §. Wood. .
subcarinata, Mont...| _lit-
Scissurella, D’Orb.
plicata, Phil. ........ 70-150
Solarium, Lam.
stramineum, Gmel. 69
Trochus, Lin.
coutourii, Payr......| 15-69
vielloti, Payr. ......| lit.
jussieui, Payr. ......| _ lit.
tineis, Chacct. ...... 69-105
magus, Lin. ......++ 25-40
canaliculatus, Lam.| 6-13
racketti, Payr.......| 4-14
villicus, Phil. ......| 14
pallidus, Ford. ...... lit.
umbilicaris, Gel. | _ lit.
lyciacus, Ford. ...... lit.
spratti, Ford. ...... 3-30
fanulum, Gime ......| 9-60
lit.
3-30
lit.
lit.
lit.
lit.
19-55
8-27
richardi, Payr. ......
adansoni, Payr. ...
divaricatus, Lin. ...
articulatus, Zam. ...
fragarioides, Lam...
therensis, Forb......
ziziphinus, Lin.
conulus, Zam. ......
laugieri, Payr. .....-
crenulatus, Broce. ...
gravesi, Morb. ....+.
exasperatus, Penn. .
millegranus, Phil. .
Turbo, Vin.
sanguineus, Gimel....
rugosus, Gimel. ......
Phasianella, Lam.
pulla, Gmel. ......++
intermedia, Phil. ...
vieuxii, Payr. ...+.
Tanthina, Lam.
nitens, Menke. .....
3-10
3-41
10-165
41-110
27-105
8-380
2-80
8-10
6-24:
sublit. ?
.| pelagic.
REPORT—1843.
rape Ground.
iving at
fathoms.
lit. rock, &c
lit. rock, &¢
lit. rock, &¢
40-45 weedy
0 nullipore.
4-16 weedy.
(0) sand ?
(0) mud,
0 nullipore.
69 weed.
lit. rock.
lit. rock.
0 nullipore.
25 weedy.
6-8 weedy.
sublit. mud.
14 mud,
(0) rock ?
lit. rock.
lit. rock.
3-24 weed.
9 weed.
lit. rock.
3-20 weed.
lit. rock.
lit. rock.
lit. rock.
lit. rock.
19-55 weed.
8-27 mud, weed.
0) sand P
3-10 |sand, mud, &c.
8-40 sand, weed.
10-105 |mud, nullip., &e.
41-110 | mud, nullipore.
27-60 nullipore.
8-50 mud, weed.
3-80 sand.
8-10 mud.
6-24 sand, &c.
pelagic. esees
Geographical
Distribution.
o
17)
=I
i
West Indies.
Lus., Celt.
Eux.
Lus., Celt., N.,
[Can.
Sosy oh
s
*
Beppe moa So ws P
Eux.
Lus., Can.
Lus., Celt.
Lus., Celt., N.
oe ote
Can.
Lus., Celt., N.
[Eux., Can.
bes Bpeibe
Atlantic.
ON GEAN INVERTEBRATA,
Species.
ae ee
Cerithium, Brug.
vulgatum, Brug. ...
fuscatum, Costa. ...
mamuillatum, Risso.
lima, Bragi*.......5
trilineatum, Pail....
lacteum, Phil. ......
angustissimum, Ford.
Triforis, Desh.
adversum, Zin. ......
perversum, Zam. ...
Pleurotoma, V.am......
albida, Desh..........
formicaria, Sow. ...
Trude, Phas lis .ccis
crispata, Jan. ......
bertrandi, Payr. ...
purpurea, Mont.. ...
reticulata, Bron. ...
( spinosa, Ford. ...
maravigne, Biv. ...
vauquelini, Payr...
gracilis, Mont. ......
attenuata, Mont......
levigata, Phil. ......
teres, Ford. ......065
lefroyi, Mich. ......
philberti, Mich......
turgida, Forb. ......
fallax, Forb.........3
linearis, Mont. .....
fortis, Ford. .......4.
lyciaca, Ford. ......
minuta, Ford. 2.1...
abyssicola, Ford. ...
zgeensis, Forb.......
Fasciolaria, Lam.
tarentina, Zam.......
Fusus, Lam. ........060s
lignarius, Lam.......
syracusanus, Lam. .
lavatus, Bast. ......
muricatus, Moné. ..
crispus, Broce. ......
fasciolarioides, Ford.
karamanensis, £orb.
Murex, Lin.
brandaris, Zin. ......
trunculus, Z27.......
cristatus, Broc.......
edwardsii, Payr. ...
fathoms.
11-40
lit.
lit.
3-140
lit. ?
29-30
7-55
4-95
55-69
lit. ?
10-80
lit. ?
40-105
13
30-50
20-105
$#55
20-105
24-55
13-80
7-35
eeecee
50-150
40-60
20-58
30
2-40
lit. 10-28
20-80
lit.
fathoms.
11-40
lit.
lit.
3-80
Found —
living at
eed
mud, weed.
rock.
sand.
weed, &c.
sand ?
nullipore.
weed.
weed.
weed.
sand ?
weed.
sand ?
mud, sand.
weed.
weed.
weed.
weed, &c.
weed, &c.
gravel.
nullipore.
weed.
sand.
nullipore.
eeesee
sand.
mud, weed.
nullipore, &c.
nullipore.
~ weed.
mud.
sand, mud, &e.
rock, mud.
sand, weed.
rock.
139
S | Geographical
t | Distribution.
a. |Eux., Can.
La,
a. |Lus., Celt., N.,
Y. (Can,
Yr.
l
f. |Lus., Celt.
], |Lus.,Celt.,Can,
f.
a. |Peru?
r.
1.
Pe
1. |Lus., Celt., N.
l. |Lus.
a
f
1.
f. \Lus., Celt,
1.
v.Yr.'
ver
f.
r.
r
1, |Lus., Celt., N.
vV.r.
ve T
Yr.
Yr
iv.F.
a.
ae
1.
a. |Lus,
f. |Lus., Celt., N.
f.
f.
v.Yr.
a. |Can.
a. |Can.
a.
Aer
140 REPORT—1843.
Found Ground: g Geographical
living at s | Distribution.
Species. Range.
——S |
fathoms. fathoms.
Murex, Lin.
vaginatus, Cr.gJan.| 150 0 mud. ver.
distinctus, Cr. § Jan.| 40-69 0 nullipore. r.
brevis, Forb.......... 24. IA: mud. V.r.
fistulosus, Broc...... 6-50 6 mud. Ye
Aporrhais, Da Costa.
pes-pelecani, Lin...
Ranella, Lam. .........
12-70 | 20-45 | weed,mud. | @ |Lus., Celt., N.
lanceolata, Menke....| _ lit. ? 0 rock ? ver.
Triton, Lam.
variegatum, Lam.... 7 % weed. vr.
Purpura, Lam.
hemastoma, Lam. .| _ lit. 0 rock. v.T.lAtlantic.
Cassidaria, Lam.
tyrrhena, Lin. ...... 40-48 (6) weed. v.Y.
Dolium, Lam.
galea, Lin...... ele 10-31 0 sand ? ]. |Can.
Pollia, Gray.
maculosa, Lam...... lit. lit. rock. a.
candidissima, Phil..| lit. (0) sand ? v.T.
minima, Phil. ......| 55-69 60 nullipore. 1.
Nassa, Lam.
macula, Mont. ......| 7-10 9 weed. vy. r.|Lus., Celt., N.
variabile, Phil ...... 0-27 0-7 mud. a.
d’orbignyi, Payr. ... lit. ? 0) sand? r.
varicosa, Turt.......| 27 O | _eeveeenes r.
intermedia, Ford....| 45-185 0 nullipore, mud. | 1.
granulata, Phil...... 7-10 @) mud. zm
prismatica, Broc. ...| 19-20 0 nullipore. re
reticulata, Lin.......| 7-10 7 weed. a. |Eux., Can.
musiva?, Broc....... 7-10 8 weed. | ]. |Lus.,Celt., Brit.
cornicula, Olivi. ...| 0-19 2: rock, &c. 1.
semistriata, Broc....| 70-78 (0) mud. Vv. 1.
mutabile, Zin. ......| lit-10 | lit—10 sand, mud. | a. |Lus., Can.
gibbosula, Lin. ...... lit. (0) sand ? ver.
neritea, Lin. .......+- lit. lit. sand. a. |Lus., Bux.
Columbella, Lam.......
rustica, Lam.......+. 0-55 lit,-20 rock, &c. a. |Eux., Can.
linnei, Payr.......+ lit-60 | lit.—10 rock, &e, a, |Eux.
gervillii, Payr....... 30-40 30 weed. l.
Mitra, Lam.
ebenus, Lam. ......| 20-80 | 20-80 weed, mud. | f. |Can.
cornea, LamM......+.. lit. ? 0 weed. ]
savignii, Payr.......| 16-30 | 16-20 weed. ,
obsoleta, Bron.......| 3-69 6-30 weed. fi.
littoralis, Forb....... lit. 0) sand ? a
phillippiana, orb. .| 45-105 45 nullipore. r
ranum, Ford. ......| 20-60 20 weed. ]
Tornatella, Lam.
fasciata, Lam. ......| 29-80 80 sand. ]. |Lus., Celt., N.
pusilla, Forb.........| 100 fe) nullipore. jv. r.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 141
i Found s Geographical
Species. Range. ties es Ground. = | Distribution.
Tornatella, Lam. fathoms. | fathoms.
globulina, Forb. ...) 95 0 nullipore. —|v.r.
Marginella, Lam.
clandestina, Bron...| 4-105 10-40 mud, &e. a.
secalina, Br..........| 25-69 30 weed. 1.
miliacea, Lam....... lit.-20 0 sand. f.
Erato, Risso.
levis, Don ......05- 19-55 | 40-45 | weed, nullip. | 1. |Lus., Celt.
Ringuicula, Desh.
auriculata, Menard.| ‘7-10 0 sand ? r. |Can.
Cyprea, Lin. .........
lurida, Zin. ......... lit. (0) sand ? v.r.
pyrum, Lin..........| lit. 0) sand ? v.r.
spurca, Lin. .........| _ lit. lit. rock. F.
europea, Lin. ......!. 23-60 55 nullipore. f. |Lus.
Conus, Lin.
mediterraneus,Brug.| 2-41 lit—10 rock, mud. | a. |Eux.
Palliobranchiata.
Eight species of Brachiopoda inhabit the Egean, seven of which are Tere-
bratule and one a Crania. They range from 25 to 230 fathoms, but abound
between 70 and 100 on a bottom of nullipore and coral, where the number of
individuals belonging to this tribe taken in a single dredge usually far ex-
ceeds that of all the other Testacea accompanying them. Their presence and
abundance is an unfailing clue to the region from whence the produce of the
dredge has been obtained. They are gregarious, living on clean ground, and
were found only in a dead state in the neighbouring mud. Of the largest species,
the Terebratula vitrea, two broken specimens only were taken, one of them
at the great depth of 1380 feet below the surface. No living examples of
any of the species, however, were found below 105 fathoms. The uniform
muddy bottom below that depth is unfavourable to their presence. The same
remarks apply to Crania ringens. It is remarkable that Terebratula caput
serpentis, which is not uncommon in the western Mediterranean, is altogether
absent in the eastern. Thecidia, also, was never met with in the latter.
Species. Range. bei oe ai Ground. z a a
Terebratula, Lam. ...| fathoms. | fathoms.
vitrea, Gm. .........| 92-250 (0) nullip., mud. |v. r.|N. Atlantic.
truncata, Gm. ......| 55-105 | 60-105 nullipore. a. |North., Lus.,
detruncata, Gm. ...| 27-110 | 45-105 nullipore. ae [Can.
cuneata, Risso.......| 28-69 | 28-69 nullipore. r=
lunifera, Phil. ...... 95 95 nullipore. _jv.r.
seminulum, PAil. ...| 45-105 | 60-105 nullipore. f.
appressa, Forb....... 95 95 nullipore. |v. r-
Crania, Retz.
ringens, Honing. ...| 40-150 | 40-90 nullipore. ae
142 REPORT—1843.
Lamellibranchiata Dimyaria.
One hundred and fifteen species of this division of bivalve Mollusca were
observed in the AEgean. Of these ten are undescribed forms, most of which
are inhabitants of great depths. Twoare species formerly known only in the
fossil state (Solen tenuis and Neera costellata). Forty-five extend their range
to the British shores; six do not reach beyond the oceanic coasts of the pe-
ninsula. Of the more abundant larger forms, the greater part are littoral
species; among the smaller deep sea forms some, such as Ligula profundis-
sima and Kellia abyssicola, are very abundant. The majority of species in
this division inhabit muddy or sandy ground.
None of the new species found were observed fossil in the neighbouring
tertiaries. Among the pleiocene fossils were four species, which, though
three of them are not unfrequent in the western Mediterranean, were not met
with in the eastern (Isocardia cor, Pholas candidus, Artemis exoleta, and
Venus casina). It is worthy of remark that these are all existing Celtic
forms. Neither was Diplodonta apicalis met with alive, which is abundant
in the tertiaries of the Archipelago, and is an existing inhabitant of the Red
Sea. There are thirty-seven species inhabiting the coasts of Sicily which
were not met with in the A2gean; of these twenty-two are oceanic forms.
Lamellibranchiata Dimyaria.
Specie, | Ramses | stingae | OF0mE | | Ditton
fathoms. | fathoms.
Teredo, sp. .secseeveese| 119 @) V.¥e
Clavagella, Lam.
melitensis ? ......64 lit. lit. eale. rock, 1.
Gastrochena, Speng.
euneiformis, Lam... 30 O mud, v.r
Solen, Lin.
siliqua, Lin. ......++ 1 0 sand. Yr. |Lus., Brit.
tenuis, Phil. .........) 7-40 7-40 | sandy & nullip.| r-
coaretatus, Lin.,.,...| 7-50 20 nullipore. f. Iceit., N.
Solecurtus, De Bl.
strigillatus, Lin. ... 1 Z-1 sand. I, |Celt,
Ligula, Mont.
sicula, Sow. .........| lit. 0 sand. r
boysii, Mont..........| 4-50 10-45 mud. a {Celt., N.
prismatica, Mont..,.| 25-55 55 mud. Ea \hlarderie
*profundissima, Forb.| 72-30 | 80-185 | white mud. | a.
Mactra, Lin.
stultorum, Zin....... lit. lit. sand. 1. |Celt., N., Lus.
Kellia, Turt.
corbuloides, Phil....| lit. sand. ]
suborbicularis,Mont.| 29-45 mud. Yr. |Celt., N.
rubra, Mont.......... lit. rock. 1. IN. & S. Atl
abyssicola, Forb. ,,.| 70-200 mud. a.
transversa, Forb. ...| 119 white mud. lv. r.
Montacuta, Turt.
BPs Ws cipsgp eye erengs 7 mud. yeI
Solenomya, Lam.
mediterranea, Lam. 2 sand. ver,
Byssomya, Payr.
8 sand. ver
guerinii, Payr... ...
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 143
Geographical
Distribution.
_
: Found ,
Species. Range. divin. it
fathoms. | fathoms.
7-80 7-40 mud, sand. a. |Lus., Celt., N.
Corbula, Lam.
nucleus, Lam. ......
Poromya, Forb.
anatinoides, Forb.... f.
Neera, Gray.
cuspidata, Bron. ..| 12-185 | 12-185 |mud,weed, sand, . Lus., Celt., N.
Yr.
40-150 0 mud.
costellata, Desh. ,..| 20-185 | 30-185 |mud, grav.weed.
attenuata, Forb. ..| 110-150 140 mud, a
abbreviata, Forb. ...| 75-185 140 mud. r,
Pandora, Lam.
rostrata, Lim. ....+0
obtusa, Leach. ......
Lyonsia, Turt.
striata, Mont.
Thracia, Leach.
4 0 sand. vy. r.|Lus., Celt.
7-110 | 20-70 | mud, weed. | f. |Lus., Celt.
20-70 | 20-70 | weed, nullip. | 1. |Lus., Celt., N.
pubescens, Mont....| 70 0 With wel eee, .. (Ra Tusa Celta N:
phaseolina, Avener. | 7-30 7 sand. Vv. Te
pholadomyoides,for., 150 0 coral. ver
Saxicava, Lam.
arctica, Fabr. ......
Venerupis, Lam.
20-80 | 20-80 | weed, sand. | I. |Lus., Celt., N.,
[Can.
Trus, Lam........0.00: lit. @) RE aateicd cs a. |Lus., Celt., N.,
decussata, Phil...... lit. 0 sand ? a. [Eux.
Psammobia, Lam. ,
vespertina, Zam. ...| 7-40 0 sand. Y. |Lus.,Celt,,Can,
discors, Lam. ...... 95-40 (0) nullipore. _ |y.r.
ferroensis, Mont. ...| 20-40 8) nullipore. _ |y-T.|Lus., Celt., N.
Tellina, Lin.
pulchella, Zam...... 11 0 sand ? re [ Bux.
donacina, Gm, ......| 7-45 7-12 mud. a, |Lus., Celt., N.,
serrata, Broe. ......| 7-45 0) weed. 1.
balaustina, Poli 6-48 40 sand. f.
fragilis, Zin. ......... lit. 0 sand. Yr. |Lus.,Celt.,Eux.
planata, Zim..,.......} lit. 0 sand. l. |Lus
depressa, Gm, ...... lit. 0 sand. 1. \Lus., Celt.
distorta, Poli ...... 5-10 7 weed. 1.
Lucina, Brug.
flexuosa, Mont...,...) 7-11 11 mud. r. |Celt,
lactea, Zam..........| O-25 10-24. mud. a. |Lus.,Celt.,Eux.
desmarestii, Payr. | _ lit. lit. sand. I Can.
rotundata, Mont...., 6 0 mud. r. |Celt.
spinifera, Mont ...... 4-30 13-40 | weed, nullipore.} f, |Lus., Celt.
pecten, Lam.........: 0-16 0) sand. -f. |Can.
digitalis, Zam. ....,.| 25 0 sand ? y. r.|Lus., Celt.
commutata, PAil....| 11-75 0 nullipore. 1.
,| bipartita, Pdi. ...... 55-95 69 nullipore. 1.
transversa, Bronn ...| 10-25 10 mud. ie
ferruginosa, Forb....| 119 119 mud. 1
Donaz, Lin,
trunculus, Ziz...,... lit. lit. sand. 1, |Lus., Gelt., N.
venusta, Poh ....,. 8 8 mud. r. | [Eux., Can.
complanata, Mont. .| lit. lit. sand. l. |Lus., Celt.
144 REPORT—1843.
Species. Range. Found Ground. S Geographical
living at f | Distribution.
Donaz, Lin. fathoms, | fathoms.
semistriata, Poli ...| lit. 0 sand. Yr.
Mesodesma, Desh.......
donacilla, Desh....... lit. 3B sand. a. 1.Lus.
Astarte, Sow.
incrassata, DelaJonk.| 30-80 | ...... nullipore. fs
pusilla, Ford. ...... 70-112 70 nullipore. t.
Artemis, Poli.
lincta, Mont.......... 0-16 1 sand. 1. |Lus., Celt, N.
Cytherea, Lam.
apicalis, Phil. ..... 4-95 30-40 | weed, coral. | a.
venetiana, Lam...... 20-40 0) mud. f.
chione, Lin. ......... 7-10 0 r. |Lus., Celt.
Venus, Lin. [Eux.&Casp.
gallina, Zin. ......... 0-2 1-2 sand l. |Lus., Celt., N.,
verrucosa, Lin....... 2-40 (I rai aaa eae ]. |Lus.,Celt.,Can.
ovata, Mont..........| 29-135 | 27-80 |nullipore, mud.| a. |Lus., Celt., N.
fasciata, Mont.......| 27-40 40 nullipore. __{I. r.|Lus., Celt., N.
incompta? Phil. ...) 20-30 IE Ss allie 335: r.
Pullastra, Sow.
virginea, Lin. ......) 15 0 weed r. |Lus., Celt., N.
aurea, Lin............| 4-10 7 mud ]. |Lus., Celt.
geographica, Lin....| 10-15 10 mud 1. |Lus.
decussata, Lin....... lit. lit. sand f. |Lus., Celt.
Cardium, Lin.
echinatum, Zzn...... 7-50 0 weed 1. |Lus., Celt., N.
erinaceum, Lam....| 20 (0) weed V.r.
levigatum, Lin...... 20-40 (0) weed. ]. |Lus., Celt., N.
papillosum, Poli ...| 6-75 7-45 weed, mud, &c¢.| a.
exiguum, Lin. ......| 7-30 16-24 weed. f. |Lus., Celt.
punctatum, Fen. ...| 12 12 sand. Yr. C
minimum, Phil....... 70-142 80 mud f. roe uae .
edule, Zin............ lit. lit. sand. 1. |Lus., Celt., N.,
rusticum, Chemn....| _ lit. lit. sand. Yr. |Lus., Eux.,
Cardita, Brug. Casp.
suleata, Brug. ......| 7-30 10-20 weed. f.
squamosa, Lam. ...| 25-150 | 40-95 nullipore. f
trapezia, Mull. ...... 0-95 1-25 rock, weed. | f.
cealyculata, Lam. ...| 0-1 0-4 rock. a. |Lus., Can.
Arca, Lin.
barbata, Lin........0. lit.—4 0-1 rock. a. |Lus., Celt.
lactea, Lam..........| 0-150 | 10-150 |r*.,weed,nul.&c.| a. |Lus., Celt.
scabra, Polt ... ....: 70-105 100 nullipore. Ts
imbricata, Poli ...| 35-230 | 90-230 | nullipore, mud.} f. |Can.
antiquata, Lin....... 45-50 0 nullipore. Yr.
tetragona, Poli ...... 20-80 | 30-80 nullipore. f. |Lus., Celt.
NOR, Lin. ....00000003| O-27 1-3 rock. f. |Lus., Can.
Pectunculus, Lam.
glycimeris, Lam. ...| 6-24 6 mud. oa
pilosus, Lam......... 25-69 69 nullipore. Yr. |Lus., Celt., N.,
violaceus, Lam....... 10 0 gravel. Wr Can.
lineatus, Phil. ......| 4-30 0 nullipore. | tr.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 145
Found Ground. s Geographical
living at f | Distribution.
ce | ee |
Species. Range.
—_—. —-!
Nucula, Lam.
fathoms. fathoms.
POL, Phil 3, ek 45-140 (0) mud, nullipore.| 1.
margaritacea, Lam..| 2-95 3-40 mud, &c. a. |Lus., Celt., N.
zgeensis, Morb. 185 185 mud. Yr.
emarginata, Zam....| 7-50 7-45 mud, weed. | f.
striata, Phil..........| 40-185 | 40-11 sand, mud. | f.
Chama, Lin.
gryphoides, Zin. ...
Modiola, Lam.
0-50 12-0 |rock, nullipore.| f. |Lus., Can.
barbata, Zam. ......| 7-95 7-95 |mud,weed,null.| I. [Lus., Celt.
tulipa, Lam. .........| 2-50 6-45 mud, &e. 1. |Lus., Celt.
discrepans, Mont. ...| 10-40 10 weed. r. |Lus., Celt., N.
marmorata, Forb....| 19-45 19 gravel. r. |Lus., Celt., N.
Lithodomus, Lam.
lithophagus, Zam....| _lit. lit. rock. f.
Mytilus, Lin. [Lam.
gallo-provincialis, lit. lit. rock, Ts
minimus, Poli ......| lit. lit. rock. a.
Pinna, Lin.
squamosa, Lin....... 1-24 1 sand, mud. | f. |Can
Lamellibranchiata Monomyaria.
There are twenty-eight species of this division of bivalve Mollusca inha-
biting the /Egean. Of these six are undescribed forms inhabiting the greater
depths, being all found between 40 and 200 fathoms. Of the remainder, eight
extend their range to the shores of Britain. Many of the species which else-
where attain a considerable size are small in the Agean. The gregarious
species do not there form great banks or beds as in other places.
Of the new species found one only (Pecten hoskynsii) was observed fossil
in the neighbouring tertiaries, and that one in a deposit of considerable age
(ante-pliocene). Of the others, several are abundant in the pleiocene de-
posits, at the period of the formation of which, however, they seem to have
attained their full dimensions, and not to have been dwarfed as at the present
day. Generally speaking, the proportion of dead valves greatly exceeds that
of living shells of this section, brought up in dredge, and in the majority of
species the valves become disunited after death and scattered. There are
about twelve Monomyaria, which though inhabiting the western Mediterra-
nean, do not seem to extend their range to the Aigean.
Lamellibranchiata Monomyaria.
o " Hy
Species. Range. ie aa Ground. é Baeertical
Avicula, Lam. fathoms. | fathoms.
tarentina, Lam....... 20 20 mud. r. |Can.
Lima, Brug.
squamosa, Zam. ...| 1-69 1-28 | rock, gravel. | f. |Lus., Can.
tenera, Turé.......... 0-30 @) sand, 1. |Lus.Celt.(Can.
fragilis, Mont. ...... 20-40 | 20-40 nullipore. 1. |Lus., Celt., N.,
subauriculata, Mont. 15-30 | - O weed. ], |Lus., Celt., N.
L
1843.
146 REPORT—1843,.
: Found 3 | Ge hi
Species. | Range. vane at Ground. = wee
Lima, Brug. fathoms. | fathoms.
elongata, Jorb....... 55-140 55 nullipore, mud.) f.
cuneata, Forb.......| 40 0 nullipore. Ts
crassa, Forb..,....... 70-150 0 nullipore, mud.) f.
Pecten, Brug.
jacobeeus, Lam. ...| 12-70 25 nullipore. r. |Lus,, Can.
dumasii, Payr.......| 70-150 0) nullipore, mud.) 1.
pes felis, Zam. ......| 60-69 0 nullipore. Tr.
suleatus, Zam. ...... 7 0 1,
opercularis, Zim. ...| 10-70 | 31-55 | nullipore, &c. | a, \Lus., Celt., N.
varius, Lin. ......65| 7-55 25-55 | aullipore, &c. | f. |Lus., Celt., N.
pusio, Lam. .........| 10-69 40 weed. f. |Lus., Can.
polymorphus,Bronn.| 8-69 | 28-41 weed, &c. | a. |Eux,
hyalinus, Phil. ......| 6-60 6-40 sand. a.
testze, Bivon........0s 29-69 | 30-50 weed. ty
similis, Laskey ...... 27-185 | 40-70 mud. a. |Celt., North.
fenestratus, Forb....| 45-140 0 mud, nullipore.| f.
concentricus, Forb. .| 70-185 0 mud. f.
hoskynsii, Ford. ...| 185-200 0 mud. 1.
Spondylus, Lam.
gaderopus, Lin. .... 3-14 I rock. 1. |Can.
gussonii, Costa...... 105 105 nullipore. Yr.
Ostrea, Lin.
plicatula, Zin. ...... | lit.~30 lit. rock, &¢. 1.
cochlea, Poli ...... 60-110 0 nullipore. r. |Can.
Anomia, Brug.
ephippium, Lin..... 20-40 20 weed, &c. | |, |Lus., Celt., N.
polymorpha, Phil....| 20-140 | 20-30 weed, &c. ]. |Lus., Celt., N.
Mollusca Tunicata.
Of the simple Ascidians seventeen species were met with. Five of them
were Pelagic species, among which Salpa maxima and S. democratica were
the most abundant, especially in the spring of the year, when great numbers
of them approached the surface in fine weather in the afternoon. The
remainder were fixed species, chiefly belonging to the genera Phallusia,
Ciona, and Cynthia, some of which were found as deep as fifty-five fathoms ;
they were most abundant between twenty and forty fathoms, generally on
weedy ground. A number of compound Ascidians were also met with in
similar depths of water*.
RADIATA.
Arachnodermata.
There are fifty-seven species of acalephous animals recorded as inhabitants
of the Mediterranean sea; but few of these occur in the Aegean. Though
* The working out of the species procured of this difficult tribe and of some of the
radiate families, especially the smaller Zoophytes, demands more disposable time than
the reporter’s professional avocations (at present) permit; he is constrained therefore
reluctantly to give only a general sketch in these departments, hoping at some future
meeting to present supplementary details.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 147
continually on the look-out for these beautiful creatures only fifteen species
were met with, mostly described forms. The sheltered bays of Asia Minor
and the squally seas of the Cyclades were alike unprolific; twice only were
considerable numbers met with; once in the Gulf of Scopea, where during
the winter months great numbers of Awrelia, most species of which genus are
gregarious, assembled, and once in the bay of Smyrna, where the presence of
gigantic Rhizostome afforded full occupation for several days, in September
1842. In neither case were the individuals widely spread, but confined to a
limited space. Besides the two species named, six other members of the order
Pulmograda were met with in the months of J uly, August and December. Of
the Ciliograda, the Beroe forskilii was taken in May 1841, off the island of
Milo, and in company with it a single example of the Cestwm veneris. A few
days after a Cydippe was seen, but not taken, in the bay of Syra. Of the
Physograda, several examples of a large Stephanomia were met with in the
Gulf of Macri, in December, where they were seen floating a few feet below the
surface, about 3 p.m.on sunny days. Of the Diphyde occasional individuals
were seen, probably species of Calpe or Pyramis. Of the Cirrhigrada, Ve-
lella spirans was collected by Lieut. Spratt on the shore at Rhodes, in De-
cember 1842, and Porpita glandifera occurred once on the sandy shore be-
tween Patara and the mouth of the Xanthus in February 1842.
We must attribute the great abundance of Meduse in the western Medi-
terranean, as compared with their scarcity in the eastern, to the oceanic in-
fluence in the former. They abound near the gut of Gibraltar, a locality
prolific in species as well as individuals. Their numbers decrease as we
approach the shores of Greece. In the Aigean, as we have seen, they play
an unimportant part. The few gregarious species extend their range to the
Black Sea, where great herds of Awrelie are not unfrequently met with.
Pelagic as these animals are, there is reason to believe that the range of the
species is extremely limited, and that they afford a valuable means of defining
zoological provinces in the open sea.
Arachnodermata.
No. of | No. of Date
Locality.
Agean| Medit.| when taken.
Sp. Sp
PuLMOGRADA. 8 29
Rhizostoma, Cuv.......| 1 1
cuvieri?, Bischs..... | seesee | covers Sept. 1842. |Bay of Smyrna.
Cephea, Peron .........| 1 1 : 4 :
tuberculata, Macri. .| ...... 8{ ae pi cnet ve
Oceania, Peron .........| 1
cruciata, Forsh....1:| sees | ceeees July, 1841. |Serpho Bay.
Thaumantias .......000+. 1 1
Me, UID. wis bs dal davies Waban. Aug. 1841. |Off Milo.
Aurelia, Peron ......... 1 4
granulata?, Lam. ...| .s..00 | sees Dec. 1841. |Gulf of Scopaa, Caria.
Geryonia, Peron ....... 2 2
TOV. SP. ? vecsissssceaee seveee | case | Auge 1841. Bay of Cervi.
proboscidalis, Forsh.| ...... | ss. ++ Dec. 1841. |Gulf of Macri.
Mesonema, Eschs. ...... 1 5
coelum pensile, Mod.| ......' s+! May 1841. Off Milo.
L 2
148 REFORT—1843.
No. of | No. of
Egean | Medit.| 1), bi = oe Locality.
Sp. Sp. :
CIRRHIGRADA. 2 2
Velella, Lam............| 1 1
Spitatis, Forse cs siln debe: | \eocten Dee. 1841. |Rhodes.
Porpita, Lam. .........|. 1 1
glandifera, Lam......| ...... | ceseee Feb. 1842. |Lycia.
PHYSOGRADA. 1 Fe
Stephanomia, Peron...) 1 Z
contorta?, DZ. Ed...) ...0.0 | ceoves Dec. 1841. |Gulf of Macri.
CILIOGRADA. 8 6
Beroé, Mul. hay 1
forskalii, M. Bd...) sss. | cesses May, 1841.,;Off Milo.
Cestum, Le Sueur...... 1 1
veneris, Le Sueur ...| ...... | «s+... | May, 1841. |Off Milo.
are HgGhy oo). onok 1 1
sp. . «aided eeaited | ays ewe May, 1841. |Syra.
DirpnyDz. 2 9
Pyramis, Otto ......+6 1 1
tetragona, Ott0 ......| esses | esse various. |Throughout.
Calpe, Quoy & Gaim...} 1 1
pentagona, QuoyS G.| 22... | sevens various. |Throughout.
Echinodermata.
Crinoidea.—The only crinoid animal inhabiting the A2gean is the common
European Comatula (C. rosacea), identical in every respect with the northern
examples of the species. It is local, and lives on weedy ground in from
20 to 30 fathoms water. I met it only among the Cyclades. In no instance
was it found in the young or Phytocrinus state.
Ophiuride.—Eleven species of Ophiuride inhabit the Egean, ranging from
the surface to the greatest depths explored. Four of the Agean species are
identical with northern forms; viz. Ophiura texturata and albida, Amphiura
neglecta and Ophiothrix rosula. They are all found in habitats similar to
those in which they occur in the British seas. The last-named species is
invariably smaller than northern individuals. Five, viz. Pectinura vestita,
Ophiura abyssicola, Ophiomyxa lubrica, Ophiopsila aranea, and Amphiura
neglecta, are entirely new species. Three of these new forms were found only
in very deep water 100 fathoms and under, one of them, the second named,
having been taken alive in 200 fathoms. One of the gean Ophiuride is
an instance of a most extensive range, being found in all muddy bottoms
between 7 and 180 fathoms, the specimens from the greatest depths exactly
resembling those from the shallows.
The Euryale has not as yet been found in the eastern Mediterranean ; it inha-
bits the Eastern and the Adriatic. Deducting synonyms from previous enume-
rations of the Mediterranean Ophiuride proper, my list exceeds by four species
all former catalogues.
Asteriade.—Thirteen species of Asteriade inhabit the AEgean ; of these,
ON AGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 149
seven do not range deeper than ten fathoms. A Goniaster and an Asterina
were the species met with in deepest water, the first coming up from 60
fathoms off Cnidus, the second ranging from 20 to 70 fathoms. Four species
were identical with Celtic forms, one of them being the Uraster glacialis,
which ranges northward to the shores of Greenland. The northern seas
greatly exceed the Mediterranean in the number of species and abundance
of individuals of this order. Out of the small number of Asteriade which were
taken in the /Zgean, one half the number occurred only as single specimens.
Echinide.—The extreme abundance of Echinus lividus, which lines the
rocks a little below water-mark in most parts of the Mediterranean, is a cha-
racteristic feature of that sea. Otherwise (especially in the Aigean) Echinide
are not extensively represented. ‘The true esculentus has a wide range in
the eastern Mediterranean, extending from Cerigo to Asia Minor, but indivi-
duals are very scarce. A small species (E. monilis) is abundant on nulli-
pore ground at all depths between 15 and 100 fathoms. Spatangi are very
rare: a few examples occurred in the sandy shores, and fragments were
dredged as deep as 150 fathoms. Spatangus purpureus, identical with the
British species, is extremely scarce in the /Egean, but more frequent, and
attaining a large size in the Sicilian seas. The Mediterranean Cidaris is
very characteristic of this sea: its spines are frequently taken, and sometimes
the living animal, which dwells on coral ground, mostly in from 60 to 70
fathoms. It would appear to be gregarious.
Holothuriade.—The number of Egean Holothuriade is seven, of which four
belong to the typical genus of the family, the species of which are very cha-
racteristic of the Mediterranean. They all live in shallow water, attain to
large size, and usually occur in great numbers. The only Celtic species
observed was the Cucumaria pentactes, dredged in 11 fathoms off the mouth
of the Hermus, and exactly resembling specimens taken in similar situations
on the British coast. The Holothuriade are much more numerous in the
western Mediterranean. Mud and sand are their most usual habitats.
Sipunculide.—Out of six /Egean species of this family, three inhabit cre-
vices of the rocks near water-mark, two live among fuci in a muddy bottom,
and one (Syrinz nudus), the only one which is common to the Egean and
Celtic seas, is found on sand. The rock-inhabiting species are frequent, the
others rare. There is no diminution in the number of individuals or their
size as we travel eastwards.
Echinodermata.
Species. £gean.| Medit.; Ground. Depth. | Geog. Distrib.
CRINOIDEA. fathoms.
Comatula, Lam. ......| 1 1
rosacea, Link: (...)./0. |} dees [eee weedy. 20-30 |Celtic seas.
OpHIURIDZ.
Pectinura, Forb. ......| 1 1
vestita, Forb....... orl wee fe oas | sullipore, 100
Ophiura, Lam.........| 3 3
texturata, Lam....... vat o/[ea da hes Weel 28
albida, Forb........./.... ...+. | Sand, weed.| 5-50 |Celt.& North.) _
abyssicola, Forb. ....|.... |.... | White mud. | 100-200 [British seas.
Ophioderma, Mul. & Tros.| 1 2 4
lacertosa, Zam.......|.... |... \weedy, mud.| 10-30 |Can.
150 REPORT—1843.
Species. £gean.| Medit.| Ground. Depth. | Geog. Distrib.
OpuiuRIDz. fathoms.
Ophiomyxa, Mul. & Tros.| 1 1
lubrica, Forb. ......|-.-- .... | weedy. | 10-20
Ophiopsila, Forb... .. es| 1 1
rans Prag OR a reat ialhiy 32 weedy. 20-50
Amphiura, Forb. ..... 3 5?
florifera, Forb. . PAS as mud. 100
neglecta, Jokinst. Lott Hiladteehies heed weedy. 20-30 \North.& Celt.
chiagii, Forb.. PRs Pel. 3 mud. 7-180
Ophiothrix, Mul. ‘& Tros. | 1?
rosula, Forb.......++)..e+|eee.{| weedy. | 20-30 |North.& Celt.
aaeetkS m. (Can.
raster, Ase Soo. ee 1 3
glacialis, Zin. ......|...- vers rock. Z —_\North. & Celt.
Ophidiaster, Ag. ...... 1
levigata, Lam. ......|.... |+e-- rock. lit.
Cribrella, Ag. ........ 1
seposita, Lam. ......|.... wee | weedy. 20-30
Goniaster, Agass....... 1 1
3 See or ote Siiney ior et .... | nullipore. 60
Asterina, Nardo........ 8 8
Wilate ek sce sete Ss septa asic cles rock. lit.
2 Se ne CB arte ata ..-- | Dullipore. | 20-70
oie Ago Foie Pienaar i ..-. |sand&zost.} 10-20
Iuidia, yea , BASS i ideal ce
SWeins wieem genie opictes nisiate Tatas mud. 20
Asterias, Lin.,........: 3 4
By eg cat oe Oe SeaIPe cies sand. 28
| SOA tore $iry 2 ris sand. 3-8
< attiag Stele SIRE soa |e ee mud. 5
esos star! ofl liars, « ea.-"]* mud, 2,
Pabnipes i GV ga i eerie 1 1
membranaceus, Retz ..|....|.. 06 leceeecseee 30 ~—sY|North. & Celt.
EcHINIDZ.
Cidaris, Leske ........ ] 1
isGriny Fain PI ees .... | nullipore. | 55-105
\Echinus, Lin. oo 2.0 - 3 7
esculentus, Lin.......|....|.... | weedy. 7-40 |Bay of Biscay,
lividus, Tamer Ney tees hE rock. lit. [ Ireland.
monilis, Def. ...... .e|.... |... | nullipore. | 15-105
E-chinocyamus, Leske ..| 1 1 Celt. & North
pusillus, Mul. ...... .... flee. | nullipore | . 8-200 [seas.
Spatangus, Klein ...... 2°| 3? Atlantic.
purpureus, Mul.......|.... eee weedy. 20
Amphidetus, Ag. ......| 1 2?
mediterraneus, Forb.,.|....|.... sand, 20-30
Brissus, Klein ........| 2 \Zor3
atropos?, Lam..... to efoow vous weedy. 20-30
Sp. UNUss' 2: eh. od .... | mud, nul. | 60-130
ON EZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 151
Species. gean.| Medit.| Ground. Depth. | Geog. Distrib.
HoLoTHURIAD2. fathoms.
Holothuria, Lin. ......| 4 6?
tremula, Zin......... Se an ve sand. I
SE isha tinke mare atall easier, |acreid « weed. 3
Bewiieias cod w A Wae's aide thtese rock. =
BPE Gea areae ae os eee. |... | rock, weed. Z
Cucumaria, Blainv. ....| 1 ?
pentactes, Mul....... Shi cial tuHa mud. ll Celt. & North
Ocnus, Forb...........| 1 ? [ seas.
Spe ied via ws. add dadas dean inns rocky. 4
Chirodota, Eschs. ...... 1 4?
oT ESE CLR? Jem cr Bese eRe ee ae mud. 6-11
SIPUNCULID&.
Syrinzx, Bohadsch. ? :
nudus, Lin. ........ 1 y sand. lit.4. |Celtic, Lus.
oC SRT SIR CE. A ecioae gs iaIoe rocky. lit.
Sipunculus, Lin. 3 ?
23 (OIRO AB Ear ere Se eel a he 0-8
Ly Oe ee Beyer Lire lee weeds. 9-3
bh Sore ae yy cients Mua e rock. lit.
Bonellia. 1 1s
Bitte ne aetee ke ae ee! | <sdecs rock. lit.
Zoophyta.
Zoophytes are, on the whole, scarce in the Aigean. They seem to suffer
the same diminishing influence as to size with the Mollusca, very numerous
minute specimens occurring of Corallium rubrum, for instance, but none
being met with of sufficient size as to render them of value in commerce.
Corallines are scarce, a very few species only being common, among others
Farcimia fistulosa, Flustre are very rare ; incrusting corallines frequent.
The only corals met with of any size were Cladocora cespitosa and Porites
dedalea, The former is extremely abundant near water-mark on the coast
of Asia Minor, where it forms elegant cauliflower-like patches of bright
orange, from the hue of the animals, adhering to the rocks. The latter is
rare, and was dredged alive in about 12 fathoms in the Bay of Serpho.
Among the soft Zoophytes there are several beautiful and curious species
inhabiting the AXgean. In all six species were met with, of which one, the
Edvardsia vestita, was remarkable for living in a tube of its own construc-
tion, formed of gravel and shells; and another for living entirely on the sur-
face of the ocean, where it was frequently met with swimming during the
winter months.
Aleyonia were not uncommon, but no species of Pennatula was met with,
nor of Gorgonia*.
The range of Zoophytes is very great in the Aigean, extending nearly to
the greatest depths explored. A beautiful little waxy green Jdmonea? was
characteristic of depths below 100 fathoms, extending to 180. Caryophyllia
(cyathus) ranged from 5 to 90 fathoms. Hornera at 40. Plumularie ranged
to 40. Myriapora truncata was found as deep as 70 fathoms alive. Zubu-
* Two species of Pennatula have since been procured in abundance off the mouth of the
Hermus in 7 fathoms, by Lieut. Spratt.
152 REPORT—1843.
lipora serpens in 20 to 40 fathoms. Retepora abundant between 15 and 30.
Alecto incrusting shells in 150 fathoms. Four species of coral were taken,
though dead, at 105 fathoms. Hudendrium was found at 20 fathoms. Val-
keria and Campanularia at 30. Crisia at 20. Aectinia ranged from the
surface to 20 fathoms.- Aleyonium as deep as 70.
Amorphozoa.
Sponges abound in the Agean, inhabiting all depths of water between sea-
mark, where the rocks are often of a brilliant scarlet with incrusting species,
to nearly 200 fathoms, a sponge allied to Grantia having been dredged alive
at 180 fathoms, and a small species of another genus at 185. The sponge of
commerce is procured by divers from rocks in various depths between 7 and 30
fathoms. Most of the larger species are found at lesser depths, very large ones
occurring in the second zone or region. The forms of the species do not appear
to bear any relation to the depth in which they are found, tubular sponges,
globular, incrusting and palmate species all inhabiting the littoral zone. I met
with about twenty species of Amorphozoa in the eastern Mediterranean.
The distribution of marine animals is determined by three great primary
influences, and modified by several secondary or local ones. The primary
influences are climate, sea-composition and depth, corresponding to the three
great primary influences which determine the distribution of land animals,
namely climate, mineral structure and elevation. The first of these primary
marine influences is uniform in the eastern Mediterranean. From Candia to
Lycia, from Thessaly to Egypt, we find the same species of Mollusca and
Radiata assembled together under similar circumstances. The uniformity
of distribution throughout the Mediterranean is very surprising to a British
naturalist, accustomed as we are to find distinct species of the same genera,
climatally representative of each other, in the Irish and North seas, and on the
shores of Devon and Zetland. The absence of certain species in the gean
which are characteristic of the western Mediterranean, is rather to be attri-
buted to sea-composition than to climate. The pouring in of the waters of
the Black Sea must influence the fauna of the Zgean and modify the consti-
tution of its waters. To such cause we must attribute the remarkable fact,
that with few exceptions individuals of the same species are dwarfish com-
pared with their analogues in the western Mediterranean. This is seen most
remarkably in some of the more abundant species, such as Pecten opercularis,
Venerupis irus, Venus fasciata, Cardita trapezia, Modiola barbata, and the
various kinds of Bulla, Rissoa, Fusus, and Pleurotoma, all of which seemed
as if they were but miniature representatives of their more western brethren.
To the same cause may probably he attributed the paucity of Meduse
and of corals and corallines. Sponges only seem to gain by it. The
influence of depth is very evident in the general character of the 7Egean
fauna, in which the aborigines of the deeper recesses of the sea play an im-
portant part numerically, both as to amount of species and individuals.
The secondary influences which modify the distribution of animals in the
/Egean are many. First in importance ranks the character of the sea-bottom,
which, though uniform in the lowest explored region, is very variable in all
the others. According as rock, sand, mud, weedy or gravelly ground pre-
vails, so will the numbers of the several genera and species vary. The
presence of the sponges of commerce often depends on the rising up of peaks
of rock in the deep water near the coast. As mud forms by much the most
extensive portion of the bottom of the sea, bivalve Mollusca abound more indi-
vidually though not specifically than univalves. As the deepest sea-bottom is
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 153
of fine mud, the delicate shells of Pteropoda and Nucleobranchiata are for the
most part only preserved there. Where the bottom is weedy we find the
naked Mollusca more numerous than elsewhere ; where rocky, the strong-
shelled Gasteropoda and active Cephalopoda. Few species either of Mollusca
or Radiata inhabit all bottoms indifferently. ;
The nature of the sea-bottom is mainly determined by the geological
structure of the neighbouring land. The general character of the fauna of
the Agean is in a great measure dependent on the great tracts of scaglia which
border it, and of which so many of its islands are formed. The degradation
of this cretaceous limestone fills the sea with a white chalky sediment, espe-
cially favourable to the development of Mollusca. Where the coast is formed
of scaglia numerous marine animals abound which are scarce on other rocks,
The genera Lithodomus and Clavagella among Mollusca, the Cladocora
cespitosa among Zoophytes, are abundant in such localities only.
In a report on the distribution of British terrestrial and fluviatile Mollusca,
which I liad the honour of presenting to the Association at Birmingham, I
asserted that a remarkable negative influence was exercised by serpentine on
the distribution of pulmoniferous Mollusca. This I have had peculiarly
favourable opportunities of confirming in the Egean, where whole islands
being formed of serpentine, the almost total absence of those animals which are
abundant on the islands of other mineral structure is most striking. But I
found further, that not only does serpentine exercise a negative influence on
air-breathing Mollusca, but also on marine species. An extensive tract on the
coast of Lycia and Caria, indented with deep and land-locked bays, is formed |
of that rock. In such bays, with the exception of a few littoral species
which live on all rocks, we find an almost total absence of Testacea; whilst in
correspondent bays in the neighbouring districts, formed of scaglia, of sac-
charine marble, and even of slate, we find an abundance of Testacea, so that
it can hardly be doubted that the absence or scarcity of shelled Mollusca in
such case is owing to negative influence exercised by the serpentine. The
outline of the coast is evidently an important element in such influences, or in
modifying it.
Tides and currents in most seas are important modifying influences. In
the AEgean the former are so slight as scarcely to affect the fauna; the latter,
in places, must be powerful agents in the transportation of species and of the
spawn of marine animals. Their action, however, like that of storms, appears
materially to affect the upper regions only ; the transportation of the species
of one region into another seldom extending further than that of the regions
immediately bounding that in which it is indigenous. Certain species, such
as the Rissoe, which live on sea-weed, may occasionally fall to the bottom
region, of which they are not true natives, and may live for a time there, but
such cases appear to be rare, and the sources of fallacy from natural trans-
portation are fewer than might be imagined at first thought, and in most
cases have arisen rather from the form of the coast than from currents.
Thus where the coast-line is very steep, the sea suddenly deepening to 60 or
70 fathoms close to the rocks, limpets, littoral Zrocht and other-shells, when
they die, fall to the bottom, and are found along with the exuvie of the
natural inhabitants of those depths. Several instances of this occurred during
dredging. ,
The influx of fresh water, whether continual, or where a river empties
itself into the sea, or temporary, as on the coast of Asia Minor during the
rainy season, when every little ravine becomes suddenly filled with a raging
torrent, bearing down trees and great masses of rock, and charged with
thick mud, frequently modifies the marine fauna of certain districts very
154 REPORT—1843.
considerably. The first generates great muddy tracts, which present a fauna
peculiar to themselves: the second, though of short duration, deposits de-
tached patches of conglomerate, and by the sudden settling of the fluviatile mud
forms thin strata at the bottom of the sea, often containing the remains of ter-
restrial and fluviatile animals, soon to be covered over by marine deposits with
very different contents. From the influx of a great river we may have tropical
or subtropical, terrestrial or fluviatile forms mingled with temperate marine.
Thus among forty-six species of Testacea collected by Captain Graves and Mr.
Hoskyn on the shore at Alexandria, there are four Egyptian land and fresh-
water Mollusca, three of which are of truly subtropical forms, viz. Ampullaria
ovata, Paludina unicolor, and Cyrena orientalis. The marine associates of
these are, however, noways more southern in appearance, and for the most
part identical as species with the Testacea which strew the shore at Smyrna
or at Toulon, in the former case mingled with Melanopsis, in the latter with
characteristic European Pulmonifera.
When the sea washes the shores of Egypt, remains of vegetables of a sub-
tropical character become mingled with similar associations of marine Mol-
lusca with those in which the relics of more northern plants become im-
bedded in the waters of the Black Sea. The Nile may carry down the woods
and animals of Upper Egypt, the Danube those of the Austrian Alps. De-
posits presenting throughout similar organic contents of marine origin, may
contain at one point the relics of marmots and mountain salamanders, at
another those of ichneumons and crocodiles.
Vegetable remains are being imbedded in strata forming at very different
depths. Thus olive leaves were scattered among the mud dredged from a
depth of 30 fathoms on the coast of Lycia, at Symboli, and date stones and
monocotyledonous wood from a depth of nine fathoms off Alexandria. Of
course the associated Mollusca were very distinct in each instance, in the
first being members of the fourth, in the second of the second region of
depth.
Provinces of Depth.
There are eight well-marked regions of depth in the eastern Mediterranean,
each characterised by its peculiar fauna, and when there are plants, by its
flora. These regions are distinguished from each other by the associations
of the species they severally include. Certain species in each are found in
no other, several are found in one region which do not range into the next
above, whilst they extend to that below, or vice versd. Certain species have
their maximum of development in each zone, being most prolific in indivi-
duals in that zone in which is their maximum, and of which they may be re-
garded as especially characteristic. Mingled with the true natives of every
zone are stragglers, owing their presence to the action of the secondary in-
fluences which modify distribution. Every zone has also a more or less ge-
neral mineral character, the sea-bottom not being equally variable in each,
and becoming more and more uniform as we descend. The deeper zones are
greatest in extent ; so that whilst the first or most superficial is but 12, the
eighth, or lowest, is above 700 feet in perpendicular range. Each zone is
capable of subdivision in smaller belts, but these are distinguished for the
most part by negative characters derived from the cessation of species, the
range of which is completed, and from local changes in the nature of the sea-
bottom.
First Recion, or LirTorAL Zone.
The first of the provinces in depth is the least extensive, and two fathoms
ON SGBAN INVERTEBRATA. 155
may be regarded as its inferior limit. Its mineral nature is as various as the
coast-line, and its living productions are influenced accordingly ; sand, roek
or mud presenting their several associations of species. Limited, too, as is its
extent, it nevertheless presents well-marked subdivisions. That portion which
forms the water-mark, and which (though in the Mediterranean the space be
very small in consequence of the very slight tides) is left exposed to the air
during the ebb, presents species peculiar to itself. Such on rock are Littorina
ceerulescens, Patella scutellaris, Kellia rubra, Mytilus minimus, and Fossarus
adansoni ; on sand, Mesodesma donacilla, a bivalve which buries itself in great
numbers immediately at the water’s edge ; in mud, a mineral character almost
always derived from the influence of the influx of fresh water, Nassa muta-
bile and neritoidea ; Cerithium mammillatum on all bottoms, usually under
stones or weed; Truncatella truncata and Auricula. All these species are
gregarious, most of them occurring in considerable numbers, and they are
almost all Mollusca having a great geographic range ; eight out of the eleven
being widely distributed in the Atlantic, and one, the Littorina ccrulescens,
extending from Tristan d’Acuna to the shores of Norway. The fuci of the
coast-line, such as Dietyota dichotoma and Corallina officinalis, are also spe-
cies of wide geographic diffusion. The bottomless barnacles ( Ochthosia) are
characteristic of this belt.
Immediately below this boundary line between the air and the water, we
have a host of Mollusca of peculiar forms and often varied colours, associated
with numerous Radiata and Articulata. In this under-belt we find the most
characteristic Mediterranean forms, those which exhibit the action of the
climatal influence most evidently. Boring in the sand live Solen strigit-
latus, Lucina desmarestii, Amphidesma sicula, Venerupis decussata, and va-
rious species of Donaa, Tellina and Venus; in the mud abounds Lucina
lactea; on the rocks we find Cardita calyculata, Arca barbata, Chama gry-
phoides, Lithodomus, Chiton squamosus and cajetanus, Patella bonnardi,
Fissurella costaria, several species of Vermetus, Haliotis, numerous and pecu-
liar Trochi, Cerithium fuscatum, Fasciolaria tarentina, Fusus lignarius,
Murex trunculus, Pollia maculosa, Columbella rustica, Cyprea spurca, and
Conus mediterraneus, with various Radiata and Articulata, most of them
peculiar forms. In this belt, in fact, we have the characteristic species of the
Mediterranean fauna, those animals which give a subtropical aspect to the
general assemblage of forms in that sea. It is worthy of note, that not onl
is the climatal influence evident in the colouring and size of the shells of Mol-
lusca in this region, but also in that of the animals themselves, which often
present the most varied combinations of brilliant hues, sources of well-marked
specific character. This is especially the case with the Gasteropoda, and is
equally true with the sublittoral forms of the Northern as of the Southern
seas.
It is only in this subdivision of the highest zone that we see distinct in-
stances of local distribution of species in the Egean. This is especially the
case with the genus Zrochus, some of the species of which have a very limited
distribution, though always abundant where they occur. It is also the case
with the naked Mollusca and with Zoophytes. Among the last, the rocks of the
first zone in Asia Minor are well distinguished from those in the islands, by
the great abundance of a beautiful coral, Cladocora cespitosa, which is
found in large masses, but does not appear to live deeper than six or eight
feet below the surface of the water. In the sheltered gulfs of Lycia and Caria,
sponges (not the kinds used in commerce) of singular shapes and bright
colours abound in this region, growing to a considerable size. In the Cy-
clades the beautiful Actinea rubra abounds in similar localities. Padina
156 REPORT—1843.
pavonia is the characteristic Fucus of the belt of the first region, and among
its elegant fronds may be seen innumerable Crustacea prowling, whilst in the
crevices of the rocks on which they grow live numerous fishes of the blenny
and wrasse tribes, like all the other natives of this province, remarkable for
the vivid painting of their skins.
The inhabitants of the lowest portion of this narrow but varied belt are
equally characteristic, especially such as live on the sandy tracts covered with
Zostera. The Pinna squamosa is most abundant here, and in rocky places
the cuttle-fishes abound. On the Zostera live numerous Fissoa.
Besides its true inhabitants, the littoral zone is continually receiving acces-
sions to its fauna from the washing up of the exuvie of the animals of the
succeeding region, especially after storms, which strew the sandy shores with
the remains of Mollusca. Mingled with these are the remains of freshwater
animals carried into the sea by the streams. These are not necessarily found
in the immediate neighbourhood of the streams by which they are brought
down, but seem to be carried along the shore by eddies and currents, so that
in a deep bay they may frequently be found at the opposite part of the shore
to that where the stream which doubtless wafted them to the sea emptied
itself, the depth of the intermediate gulf precluding the notion that they could
have been washed across. Whilst the sea one day casts up numerous shells,
Crustacea, &c., it often covers them up with silt the next, so that increasing
alternations of organic bodies and sand or mud must be continually in pro-
cess of formation in this region.
TEsTACEA OF Recion I.
Lamellibranchiata.
Clavagella © Mesodesma donacilla.*
Solen siliqua. Venus gallina.*
Solecurtus strigillatus.* decussata.*
Ligula sicula. geographica. ?
Mactra stultorum.* Cardium rusticum.
Kellia corbuloides.* edule.*
rubra.* Cardita calyculata.*
Tellina donacina. : trapezia.*
fragilis. Arca barbata.*
planata. lactea.*
Lucina pecten. noe.*
digitalis. ? Lithodomus lithophagus.*
lactea.* Mytilus gallo-provincialis.*
desmarestii.* minimus.*
Venerupis irus.* Pinna squamosa.*
decussata.* Lima squamosa.*
Donax trunculus.* tenera. ?
complanata. Spondylus gadzropus.*
semistriata. Ostrea plicatula.*
Gasteropoda.
Chiton squamosus.* Patella scutellaris.*
cajetanus.* ferruginea.*
fascicularis.* bonnardi.*
Note.—The asterisk indicates that the species attains its maximum of development in that
region; the note of interrogation implies that the species is probably a straggler.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA.
Patella lusitanica.*
Gadinia garnoti. ?
Crepidula fornicata.
unguiformis.*
Emarginula huzardi.*
Fissurella costaria.*
gibba.*
Bullza angustata. ?
aperta. ?
Bulla striata.
cornea. ?
truncatula, ?
truncata. ?
striatula. ?
Eulima polita. ?
Parthenia elegantissima. ?
humboldti.
Truncatella truncatulum.*
Rissoa desmarestii.*
ventricosa.*
oblonga.*
violacea.*
monodonta.*
fulva.
cancellata.
granulata.
montagui.*
acuta.
pulchella.
conifera.
cingilus.
pulchra.
Littorina ccerulescens.*
Fossarus adansoni.*
Scalaria lamellosa. ?
Vermetus gigas,*
subcancellatus.*
arenarius.*
glomeratus.*
granulatus.*
Nerita viridis. ?
Haliotis lamellosus.*
Adeorbis subearinata.
Trochus vielloti.*
jussieui.*
pallidus.*
umbilicaris.*
lyciacus.*
richardi.*
divaricatus.*
articulatus.*
Trochus fragarioides.*
therensis.*
laugieri. ?
Phasianella pulla. ?
Tanthina nitens,* strag.
Cerithium fuscatum.*
mammillatum.*
lima. ?
trilineatum. ?
Triforis adversum. ?
Pleurotoma albida. ?
rude. ?
purpurea.?
leevigata. ?
lefroyi. ?
fallax. ?
linearis. ?
lyciaca. ?
Fasciolaria tarentina.*
Fusus lyciacus. ?
lavatus. ?
Murex brandaris. ?
trunculus.*
edwardsii.*
Ranella lanceolata. ?
Purpura hemastoma.
Pollia maculosa.*
candidissima. ?
Nassa reticulata.
d’orbignii. ?
variabile. ?
cornicula.*
mutabile.*
gibbosula.*
neritea.*
Columbella rustica.*
linneei.*
Mitra littoralis, ?
cornea, ?
Marginella miliacea. ?
Ringuicula buccinea. ?
Cyprzea lurida.
rufa.*
spurca.*
Conus mediterraneus.*
Dentalium 9-costatum. ?
multistriatum. ?
entalis. ?
rubescens. ?
Auricula myosotis.*
157
158 REPORT—1843.
Sreconp Recion.
The ground in the second region, which extends from two to ten fathoms,
is most generally mud or sand, the former green with a beautiful Fueus, Caw-
lerpa prolifera, abundant in the Archipelago, but I believe rare elsewhere,
the latter abounding in Zostera oceanica. Great Holothurie are here found
in abundance, and, among Mollusea, chiefly burying Conchifera. Nucula
margaritacea and Cerithium vulgatum are the Testacea most generally distri-
buted through this region. Those most prolific in individuals are, among
Gasteropoda, Cerithium vulgatum and lima, Trochus crenulatus and spratt,
Rissoa ventricosa and oblonga, and Marginella clandestina. Among Lamelli-
branchiata, Tellina donacina, Lucina lactea, Nucula margaritacea, and Car-
dium exiguum. Storms disturb this zone by washing up its inhabitants into
the littoral region.
The smaller zoophytes, especially encrusting species and such as attach
themselves to the leaves of Zostera, are frequent. Caryophyllia cyathus
begins to appear here, ranging however through all the succeeding zones.
TrstTacrous MoLiuscaA INHABITING THE SECOND REGION.
Lamellibranchiata.
Solen tenuis.* Lucina rotundata,
antiquatus. spinifera.
Solecurtus strigillatus. transversa.
Ligula boysii.* Cardium papillosum.*
Solenomya mediterranea.* rusticum.
Montacuta sp. exiguum.
Byssomya guerinii. Cardita sulcata.
Corbula nucleus.* trapezia.
Pandora obtusa. Arca barbata.
rostrata. lactea.*
Thracia phaseolina.
Psammobia vespertina.
Donax venusta.
Cytherea chione.
lunata.
apicalis.
Venus gallina.*
verrucosa.*
aurea.*
geographica.*
Tellina donacina.*
serrata.
balaustina.
distorta.*
Lucina flexuosa.
pecten.
lactea.*
Chiton rissoi.*
polii.*
Pectunculus glycimeris.*
Nucula emarginata.*
nuclea.
Modiola barbata.*
tulipa.*
discrepans.*
marmorata.*
Pinna squamosa.
Lima squamosa.
tenera.
Pecten polymorphus.*
hyalinus.*
varius.
sulcatus.
Spondylus gadzropus.
Ostrea plicatula.*
Chama gryphoides.
Palliobranchiata.
0.
Gasteropoda.
Calyptraea sinense.*
Crepidula unguiformis.*
ON ZGBEAN INVERTEBRATA. 159
Emarginula huzardii.
Bulla hydatis.*
cornea.
ovulata.
striatula.
truncatula.*
turgidula,
Natica valenciensii.*
pulchella.
olla.*
Eulima polita.*
subulata,
, Parthenia elegantissima,
Odostomia conoidea.
Rissoa desmarestii.*
ventricosa.*
oblonga.*
violacea,*
radiata.*
cimicoides.*
montagui.*
buccinoides.*
pulchella.*
acuta.
Sealaria communis.
Turritella triplicata.
terebra.*
Nerita viridis.*
Dentalium 9-costatum.*
multistriatum.*
entalis.*
fissura.*
Trochus canaliculatus.*
racketti.*
spratti.*
fanulum.*
Trochus adansoni.*
conulus.*
crenulatus.*
gravesi.*
exiguus.*
Turbo rugosus.*
Phasianella pulla.*
intermedia.*
vieuxii.*
Cerithium lima.*
angustissimum.
Triforis adversum.*
Pleurotoma formicaria.*
reticulata spinosa.*
attenuata.*
linearis.*
Fusus syracusanus,*
lavatus.*
lignarius.
Murex brandaris.*
trunculus.*
edwardsii.*
fistulosus.*
Ranella gigantea.*
Nassa reticulata,*
variabile.*
musiva.
granulata.*
macula.*
mutabile.*
Columbella rustica.*
linnzei.*
Mitra obsoleta.*
Marginella clandestina.*
Ringuicula buccinea.*
Conus mediterraneus.*
Tuirp REGION.
In this region, which extends from ten to twenty fathoms, the sea-bottom
is very generally gravelly in places, great tracts of sand also being common.
The Caulerpa and Zostera are still found, but cease towards its lower part.
It may be regarded as a zone of transition presenting but few peculiarities.
A very small and beautiful species of Asterina abounds on the fronds of
Zostera here, and the large Holothurie are still abundant. Aplysi@ and the
blue Goniodoris are the characteristic Mollusca. Lucina lactea, Cardium
papillosum, Tellina donacina, and Cerithium lima are the Testacea most
generally distributed. The species most prolific are Cerithium lima, Cardium
. papillosum, Ligula boysii, Nucula margaritacea and emarginata, Lucina lactea
and hiatelloides, so that bivalves would appear to prevail.
Testacea oF Recion III.
Solen tenuis. ?
Lamellibranchiata.
Solen antiquatus,*
160
Ligula boysii.*
Corbula nucleus.*
Newra cuspidata.*
Pandora obtusa.
Thracia phaseolina.
Psammobia vesperti na.?
Tellina pulchella.*
donacina.*
serrata. ?
balaustina.
Lucina flexuosa.*
pecten.
commutata.
transversa.*
lactea.*
spinifera.*
Cytherea chione.
lunata,
apicalis.
Venus verrucosa.
geographica.
virginea.*
Cardium echinatum.
papillosum.*
exiguum.*
Calyptreea sinense.
Fissurella greca.
Bulla convoluta.
ovulata.
striatula.
truncatula.
truncata.
akera.
Natica millepunctata.
pulchella.
guilleminii.
valenciensii.
Eulima polita.
subulata.
Parthenia elegantissima.
Odostomia conoidea. ?
Rissoa ventricosa.*
violacea.*
cimicoides.*
montagui.
acuta. ?
conifera. ?
pulchella.
Scalaria communis.
Turritella triplicata.
terebra*.
Nerita viridis.
REPORT—1843.
Cardium punctatum.*
Cardita sulcata.
trapezia.*
Arca lactea.
Pectunculus glycimeris. ?
Nucula margaritacea.
emarginata.
Chama gryphoides.
Modiola barbata.
tulipa.
discrepans.*
marmorata.*
Pinna squamosa.
Lima squamosa. ?
tenera. ?
subauriculata.
Pecten jacobzeus.
polymorphus.
hyalinus.
opercularis.
varius.
pusio.
Spondylus gadzropus.
Ostrea plicatula.
Gasteropoda.
Troehus coutourii.
canaliculatus.*
racketti.*
villicus.*
spratti.*
fanulum.
adansoni.
ziziphinus.*
conulus.*
crenulatus.*
gravesi.*
exiguus.
Turbo rugosus.
Phasianella pulla.
vieuxii.*
Cerithium vulgatum.*
lima.*
angustum.*
Triforis adversum.*
Pleurotoma formicaria.
bertrandi.
reticulata spinosa.*
gracilis.
attenuata.
zegeensis.*
linearis. ?
Fusus lignarius.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 161
Fusus syracusanus.
lavatus.*
Murex brandaris.*
trunculus. ?
fistulosus. ?
Aporrhais pes-pelecani.*
Dolium galea. ?
Nassa prismatica.
variabile.*
granulata. ?
Nassa cornicula ?
Columbella rustica.*
linneei.*
Mitra savignii.*
obsoleta.
Marginella clandestina.
Erato levis.
Conus mediterraneus.?
Dentalium 9-costatum.*
multistriatum.
FourtuH ReEGIon.
It extends through fifteen fathoms of length between twenty and thirty-five
fathoms. The sea-bottom is very various, mud and gravel prevailing, sandy
tracts being very rare. uci are abundant, the characteristic species being
Dictyomenia volubilis, Sargassum salicifolium, Codium bursa and fiabelli-.,
forme, and Cystoceira. The rare and curious Hydrodictyon umbilicatum was?"
procured in this region on the coast of Asia Minor. Corallines are more
frequent here than in the other zones. Porites dedalea occurs, but is very
local. Retepora cellulosa is very abundant; several species of Yubulipora
occur; Myriapora truncata and Cellaria ceramioides are characteristic spe-
cies of this zone. Sponges abound, and some of the finest of those used in
commerce grow here. Nullipore is abundant. Echinide are frequent, and
Comatula. Crustacea are common, also Annelides. é
Among Testacea the most generally distributed are Nucula margaritacea
and emarginata, and Dentalium 9-costatum: those most prolific are Nucula
margaritacea, Arca lactea,Cardium papillosum, Corbula nucleus, and Ligula
boysii ; Dentalium 9-costatum and Cerithium lacteum. Mollusca tunicata are
common in this region.
TrEsTACEA oF Recion IV.
Lamellibranchiata.
Gastrochena cuneiformis.
Lucina transversa.
Solen tenuis.? lactea.?
antiquatus.* spinifera.
Ligula boysii.* Astarte incrassata.
prismatica. Cytherea apicalis.*
Kellia suborbicularis.* venetiana.
Corbula nucleus.* Venus verrucosa.
Neeera costellata.* ovata.*
cuspidata.* fasciata.
Pandora obtusa.* Cardium echinatum.
Lyonsia striata.* erinaceum.
Thracia phaseolina. leevigatum.
Saxicava arctica.* papillosum.*
Psammobia discors. exiguum.*
ferroensis. Cardita sulcata.*
Tellina donacina. squamosa.
serrata. trapezia.
balaustina. Area lactea.*
Lucina commutata. tetragona.*
digitalis. noe, ?
1843,
Pectunculus glycimeris.
pilosus.
lineatus.
Nucula margaritacea.*
emarginata.*
Chama gryphoides.
Modiola barbata.*
tulipa.*
discrepans.*
marmorata.*
Pinna squamosa.
Avicula tarentina.
Lima squamosa.*
tenera.
Terebratula detruncata.
Chiton leevis.*
freelandi.*
Calyptraea sinehse.
Emarginula elongata.
Fissurella greeca.*
Bullza aperta.*
Bulla hydatis.
cornea.*
ovulata.*
striatula.
truncatula.
truncata.
convoluta.
Natica millepunctata.
valenciensii.
pulchella.
Eulima polita.
nitida.
subulata.*
Parthenia acicula.
elegantissima.*
scalaris.
varicosa.
Odostomia conoidea.*
Rissoa ventricosa.*
cimicoides.
montagui.
reticulata.
acuta. ?
pulchella.*
striata.
elongata. (?)
Turritella triplicata.*
terebra.
REPORT—1843.
Lima fragilis.*
subauriculata.
Pecten jacobzeus.*
polymorphus.*
hyalinus.*
teste.*
opercularis.*
varius.*
pusio.*
similis.
Ostrea plicatula.
Anomia ephippium.*
polymorpha.*
Palliobranchiata.
Terebratula cuneata.*
Gasteropoda.
Vermetus corneus.
Nerita viridis. ?
Trochus coutourii.
magus.*
spratti.*
fanulum.
adansoni.
ziziphinus.*
conulus.*
gravesl.
exiguus.*
Turbo sanguineus.*
rugosus.*
Phasianella pulla.
vieuxii.*
Cerithium vulgatum.*
lima.*
lacteum.
angustissimum.
Triforis adversum.*
Pleurotoma formicaria.*
reticulata var. spinosa.*
maravigne.*
vauquelini.*
gracilis.
attenuata.*
philberti.*
turgida.*
linearis.
Fusus lignarius. ?
syracusanus.*
lavatus.
Murex brandaris.*
trunculus. ?
ON ZGEAN
Murex cristatus.
brevis.*
fistulosus.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani.*
Nassa variabile.
varicosa.
granulata.
prismatica.
Columbella rustica.*
linneei.
gervillii.
Mitra ebenus.*
INVERTEBRATA.
| Mitra savignii.*
obsoleta.*
granum.*
Marginella clandestina.*
secalina.*
miliacea.
Erato levis.
Tornatella fasciata.
Cypreea europea.
Conus mediterraneus. ?
Dentalium 9-costatum.*
rubescens.*
163
Firtu Recion.
From thirty-five to fifty-five fathoms, an extent of five fathoms more than
the last, presents a well-marked fauna, and constitutes a fifth region. uct
are much scarcer than in the last, but among its vegetable products are Ryti-
phlea tinctoria, Chrysimenia uvaria, and Dictyomenia volubilis ; the last,
which gives a marked character to the preceding zone, being rare in this.
Echinodermata are frequent here, Zoophytes not abundant. Myriapora trun-
cata is frequent. The bottom is very generally nullipore and shelly. Muddy
bottoms are scarce. The Testacea most generally distributed are Nucula
margaritacea, Pecten opercularis, and Turritella tricostata. Those most
abounding in individuals are Nucula emarginata and striata, Cardium pa-
pillosum, Cardita aculeata, and Dentalium 9-costatum.
TESTACEA OF REGION V.
Lamellibranchiata.
Solen tenuis.* Cardium echinatum.
antiquatus.* levigatum.
Ligula boysii. papillosum.
prismatica. Cardita squamiosa.
Kellia suborbicularis.* trapezia.
Corbula nucleus.* Arca lactea.*
anatinoides. imbricata.
Nezra cuspidata.* autiquata.
costellata.* tetragona.*
Pandora obtusa. Pectunculus pilosus.
Lyonsia striata. ? Nucula polii.
Saxicava arctica. *
Psammobia discors.
margaritacea.*
emarginata.*
ferroensis. striata.*
Tellina donacina. Chama gryphoides. ?
serrata. Modiola barbata.*
balaustina.* tulipa.*
Lucina commutata. discrepans.
spinifera.* marmorata.
Astarte incrassata. Lima squamosa.
Cytherea venetiana. fragilis.*
apicalis.* subauriculata.
Venus verrucosa. cuneata.
ovata. Pecten jacobeeus.
fasciata. polymorphus.*
M2
Pecten hyalinus.*
testee.*
opercularis.*
varius.*
REPORT—1843.
Pecten pusio.*
leevis.*
fenestratus.
Anomia ephippium.
Palliobranchiata.
Terebratula detruncata. * }
cuneata. ?
Chiton levis*
freelandi.*
Lottia gussonii.
Calyptreea sinense.*
Emarginula capuliformis.*
elongata.
Fissurella greeca.*
Volva acuminata.
Bulleea aperta. ?
Bulla cornea.*
utriculus.
lignaria.
ovulata.
truncatula.*
truncata.
Natica millepunctata. ?
valenciensii. ?
pulchella.*
Eulima distorta.
nitida.*
Parthenia acicula.*
elegantissima. ?
pallida.
Odostomia conoidea.
Rissoa ventricosa.*
cimicoides.
reticulata,
Scalaria planicosta.
Turritella triplicata.*
terebra. ?
Vermetus corneus.*
Siliquaria anguina.
Trochus coutourii.
magus.*
fanulum.
ziziphinus.*
gravesi.
exiguus.
millegranus.*
Turbo sanguineus.*
i
|
Terebratula seminula.
Crania ringens.*
Gasteropodu.
|
\
|
Turbo rugosus.*
Phasianella pulla. ?
Cerithium vulgatum.*
lima.”
angustum.*
Triforis adversum.*
Pleurotoma formicaria.*
purpurea.
reticulata.
maravigne.*
vauquelini.
gracilis.*
attenuata.
teres.
philberti.
Fusus lavatus.
muricatus.
crispus.
fasciolaria.
Murex brandaris.
muricatus.
distinctus.
fistulosus.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani.*
Cassidaria tyrrhena.
Nassa intermedia.
Columbella rustica.
linnei.
Mitra ebenus.*
obsoleta.
phillippiana.
granum.
Tornatella fasciata.
Marginella clandestina.*
secalina.
Erato leevis.*
Cypreea europza.*
Conus mediterraneus.?
Dentalium 9-costatum.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 165
Sixty RecGion.
It extends through a range of twenty-four fathoms, between fifty-five and
seventy-nine fathoms, Nullipore is the prevailing ground. Fuci have become
extremely rare. Cidaris histrix is the characteristic Echinoderm. Several
starfishes are not uncommon. Venus ovata, Cerithium lima, and Pleurotoma
maravigne are the most generally diffused species. Z’urbo sanguineus, Kmar-
ginula elongata, Nucula striata, Venus ovata, Pecten similis, and the various
species of Brachiopoda those most prolific in individuals,
It will be observed, that although Fuei have become extremely scarce, and
in the next zone altogether disappear, there are still a considerable number
of Phytophagous Testacea. These are mostly found on “coral” ground, that
is, on a clean bottom abounding in nullipore. Now that the observations of
M. Decaisne, M. Kutzing and others have so clearly proved the vegetable
nature of that singular production, so long regarded as a zoophyte, the source
of the food of the Holostomatous Testacea in these deep regions is no longer
problematical,
TesTAceEA oF Recion VI.
Lamellibranchiata.
Ligula profundissima. Arca lactea.*
Kellia suborbicularis.* scabra.
Corbula nucleus.* imbricata.
anatinoides, tetragona.*
Neeera cuspidata. Pectunculus pilosus.*
costellata.* Nucula polii.
abbreviata. margaritacea.
Pandora obtusa.* striata.*
Lyonsia striata.*
Thracia pubescens.
Saxicava arctica.*
Kellia abyssicola.*
Lucina commutata.
bipartita,*
Astarte incrassata.
pusilla.
Cytherea apicalis.
Venus ovata.*
fasciata.
Cardium papillosum.
echinatum.
minimum,
Cardita squamosa.*
trapezia,
Terebratula truncata,*
detruncata.*
cuneata.*
Chiton levis.
Lottia gussonii.
Modiola barbata.
Lima squamosa.
elongata.*
crassa.
Pecten jacobeeus.
dumasii.
Tepe de
yalinus.
testee.
varius.*
pusio.
pes felis.
similis.*
fenestratus.
concentricus.
Anomia polymorpha.
Palliobranchiata. —
Terebratula seminula,*
Crania ringens,
Gasteropoda.
| Lottia unicolor.*
| Calyptreea sinense.
166
Emarginula elongata.
capuliformis.
Fissurella greca.
Bullea aperta. ?
REPORT—1843.
Siliquaria anguina.
Scissurella plicata.
Solarium stramineum.
Trochus coutourii.
Bulla cornea.* fanulum.
utriculus. ? exiguus.*
Coriocella perspicua. millegranus.*
Natica millepunctata. Turbo sanguineus.
valenciensii. rugosus.*
pulchella. Phasianella pulla.
Eulima distorta. Cerithium lima.*
subulata. angustum.
unifasciata. Triforis adversum.
Parthenia elegantissima. ? perversum.*
Rissoa ventricosa. ?
Pleurotoma formicaria.*
cimicoides. crispata.*
reticulata.* reticulata var.spinosa.
ovatella. maravigne.*
Turritella 3-plicata.* vauquelini.
terebra.*
SeventH REGIon.
The depths between 80 and 105 fathoms (an extent of 25), yield a cha-
racteristic fauna of their own. The sea-bottom is usually nullipore, more
rarely sand or mud. Herbaceous uct have disappeared. Echinodermata are
here not uncommon; Zoophyta and Amorphozoa scarce. Among the former
are species of Hornera, Lepralia and Cellepora; among the latter a small
round species of Grantia is frequent. Echinus monilis, Cidaris histrix and
Echinocyamus, with some of the Ophiuride, are frequent alive : no Asteriade
occur. Mollusca tunicata have ceased ; as also Nudibranchea. Crustacea
are not unfrequent, as well as testaceous annelides, among which the glassy
Serpula is very characteristic of this region.
The Testacea most generally distributed are Lima elongata, Cardita acu-
leata, Rissoa reticulata, and Fusus muricatus.
Those most prolific are Fissoa reticulata, Turbo sanguineus, Venus ovata,
Nucula striata, Pecten similis, and the various species of Brachiopoda, which
tribe abounds in this region.
Testacea or Recion VII.
Lamellibranchiata.
Ligula profundissima.
Corbula nucleus.
Poromya anatinoides.
Nezra cuspidata.
costellata.*
abbreviata.
Pandora obtusa.
Saxicava arctica.*
Lucina commutata.
bipartita.
Astarte incrassata.
pusilla.
Cytherea apicalis.
Venus ovata.*
Cardium minimum.*
Cardita squamosa.*
Arca lactea.*
scabra.
imbricata.
tetragona.
Nucula polii.
margaritacea.
striata.*
Modiola barbata.*
Lima elongata.
crassa.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 167
Pecten dumasii.
similis. ?
fenestratus. ?
concentricus. ?
Terebratula truncata.*
detruncata.*
lunifera.*
seminula.*
Chiton leevis.*
Lottia unicolor.*
Pileopsis ungaricus.
Emarginula cancellata.
elongata.
capuliformis.
Fissurella greeca.
Bullea aperta. ?
Bulla utriculus.
Natica pulchella.
Eulima distorta.
subulata. ?
Parthenia elegantissima.
Rissoa ventricosa.*
reticulata.*
ovatella.
Turritella triplicata.
Scissurella plicata ?
Trochus tinei.
exiguus.*
millegranus.*
Spondylus gussonii.*
Ostrea cochlear.
Anomia polymorpha.
Palliobranchiata.
Terebratula vitrea.
appressa.*
Crania ringens.*
Gasteropoda.
Turbo sanguineus.
rugosus.*
Phasianella pulla.*
Cerithium lima.*
Triforis adversum.
Pleurotoma formicaria. ?
crispata.*
reticulata.
maravigue.*
gracilis.*
Fusus muricatus.*
Murex cristatus.*
Nassa intermedia.
Mitra ebenus.*
phillippiana.
Tornatella fasciata.*
pusilla.
globulosa.
Marginella clandestina.
Dentalium 9-costatum.
5-angulare.
E1cHtH REGION.
The eighth region includes all the space explored below 105 fathoms,
extending from that depth to 1380 feet beneath the surface of the sea, having
a range of 125 fathoms, being more than twice the extent of all the other
regions put together. Throughout this great, and I may say hitherto un-
known province, for the notices we have had of it have been but few and
fragmentary, we find an uniform and well-characterized fauna, distinguished
from those of all the preceding regions by the presence of species peculiar to
itself. Within itself the number of species and of individuals diminishes as
we descend, pointing to a zero in the distribution of animal life as yet unvi-
sited. It can only be subdivided according to the disappearance of species
which do not seem to be replaced by others.
Sixty-five species of Testacea were taken in the eighth region, eleven of
which were procured alive. Of the total number 22 were Univalves, 3 of
which were found living; 30 Lamellibranchiate Bivalves, 8 living ; 3 Pallio-
pranchiate Bivalves, all dead, and possibly derived from the preceding region ;
and 10 Pteropoda and Nucleobranchiata, also dead. Of these, 17 Univalves,
23, Lamellibranchiata, and 3 Palliobranchiata occurred above 140 and under
180 fathoms; 4 Univalves, 11 Lamellibranchiata, and 1 Palliobranchiate Bi-
168 REPORT—1843.
valve above 180 and under 200; and 1 Univalve, 4 Lamellibranchiate, and 1
Palliobranehiate Bivalve above 200 fathoms.
The Mollusea found alive at the greatest depths were Area imbricata in
230 fathoms ; accompanied by Dentalium quinguangulare. At 180 fathoms
living examples of Nucula egeensis, Ligula profundissima, Neera atienuata
and costellata, Arca lactea, and Kellia abyssicola oceurred. Trochus mille-
granus was taken alive in110 fathoms, along with the Dentalium pusillum of
authors, which proved to be an annelide of the genus Ditrupa, and of which
three species live in this region.
Pecten hoskynsii, Lima crassa, Nucula egeensis, Scalaria hellenica, Par-
thenia fasciata and ventricosa, all new species, have been found in no other
region. Ligula profundissima, Pecten similis, Arca imbricata, Dentalium
quadrangulare and Rissoa reticulata, are more prolific of individuals in
this region than in any other. Ligula profundissima and Dentalium quin-
quangulare are the most generally diffused species below 105 fathoms ; the
former being present in eleven localities, the latter in seven. The localities
examined were eleven in number and far apart from each other, extending
from Cerigo to the coast of Lycia.
The Bullea angustata, Rissoa acuta, Cerithium lima and Teredo are pro-
bably only stragglers in this region.
Several Ophiuride are true inhabitants of the eighth region; as Ophiura
abyssicola, Amphiura florifera, Amphiura chiagi and Pectinura vestita, all well
adapted by their organisation to live in the white mud of great depths. The
only other Echinoderm was Echinocyamus at 200 fathoms, which however
was not taken alive. The Zoophytes are Caryophyllia cyathus, Aleeto and
an Idmonea, which occurs in very deep water. Small sponges of three
genera were taken alive as deep as 180 fathoms. The deepest living Crus-
tacea occurred at 140 fathoms, and the carapaces of small species are fre-
quent. Besides the Ditrupe, annelides of the genus Serpula were taken
in the greatest depths explored. Foraminifera are extremely abundant
through a great part of the mud of this region, and for the most part appear
to be species very distinct from those in the higher zones. Representatives
of the genera Nodosaria, Textularia, Rotalia, Operculina, Cristellaria, Bi-
loculina, Quinqueloculina and Gilobigerina are among the number.
TesTACEA oF Reaion VIII.
Lamellibranchiata.
Teredo. Arca lactea.
Ligula profundissima. scabra.
Corbula anatinoides. imbricata,
Nevra cuspidata.* tetragona.
costellata.* Nucula polii.
attenuata. striata.*
Pandora obtusa. zegeensis.*
Thracia pholadomyoides. Lima elongata.
Kellia abyssicola.* crassa.
oblonga. Pecten dumasii.
Asiarte pusilla. similis.
Venus ovata. fenestratus.
Lucina ferruginosa. hoskynsi.
Cardium minimum, Ostrea cochlea. ?
Cardita squamosa. Anomia polymorpha.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA, 169
Palliobranchiata.
Terebratula detruncata.
vitrea.
Crania ringens.
Gasteropoda.
Lottia unicolor.
Bullea aperta.
angustata. ?
alata.
Bulla utriculus.
cretica.
Eulima subulata.
Parthenia ventricosa.
turris.
fasciata.
Rissoa reticulata.
ovatella.
Rissoa acuta. ?
Sealaria hellenica.
Scissurella plicata.
Trochus millegranus.
Cerithium lima. ?
Pleurotoma abyssicola.
Fusus echinatus.
Nassa intermedia, var.
Marginella clandestina.
Dentalium quinquangulare.
9-costatum P
The following Diagram exhibits the comparative characters and relations
of the several regions :—
DraGRam or REeGIons OF DEPTH IN THE AGGEAN SEA.
a
Sea-Bottom = deposits forming. Region.
Extent—12 feet.
Ground various. Usually rocky or Te
sandy (conglomerates forming).
Extent—48 feet.
1B
Muddy. Sandy. Rocky.
Extent—60() feet.
Ground mostly muddy or sandy.| III.
Mad bluish.
Extent—90 feet.
Ground mostly gravelly and weedy. Iv
Muddy in estuaries, ‘
Extent—120 feet.
We
Ground nulliporous and shelly.
Ca
Extent—144 feet,
Ground mostly nulliporous. Rarely; VI.
gravelly,
ee
ere Characteristic Animals and Plants.
Littorina ccerulescens,
Fasciolaria tarentina.
Cardium edule.
2 |Plant:—Padina pavonia.
Cerithium vulgatum.
- Lucina lactea.
Holothuriz.
10 {Plants :—Caulerpa and Zostera.
a See ele a
Aplysie.
Cardium papillosum.
Ascidiz.
Nucula emarginata,
20
Cellaria ceramioides.
Plants :—Dictyomenia volubilis.
| ?
| Codium bursa,
Terr Eee ee Ee
| Cardita aculeata.
| Nucula striata.
Pecten opercularis,
Myriapora truncata.
|
55 |Plant :—Rityphleea tinctoria.
Venus ovata,
: Turbo sanguineus.
Pleurotoma maravigne.
Cidaris histrix.
ee
79 |Plant:-—N ullipora,
170 REPORT—1843.
Diagram or Reeions or Depru rn THE AEGEAN SEA (continued).
: é : Depth i
Sea-Bottom = deposits forming. Region. st ea Characteristic Animals and Plants.
| Brachiopoda.
Rissoa reticulata.
Extent—156 feet. Pecten similis.
Ground mostly nulliporous. Rarely} VII. —
yellow mud, Echinus monilis.
—_—
105 |Plant :—Nullipora.
Dentalium 5-angulare.
Kellia abyssicola.
Extent—750 feet. Ligula profundissima.
Uniform bottom of yellow mud, Pecten hoskynsi.
abounding for the most part in VII.
remains of Pteropoda and Fora- | Ophiura abyssicola.
minifera.
Idmonea.
230 Alecto. Plants :—0.
Zero of Animal Life probably about 300 fathoms.
Mud without organic remains.
TRUE SCALE OF THE ABOVE DIAGRAM.
ZERO
To all the eight regions only two species of Mollusca are common, viz.
Arca lactea and Cerithium lima: the former a true native from first to last,
the latter probably only a straggler in the lowest. Three species, namely,
Nucula margaritacea, Marginella clandestina and Dentalium 9-costatum, are
common to seven regions ; the second possibly owing its presence in the lower
ones to its having dropped off floating sea-weeds. Nine species are common
to six regions.
Corbula nucleus. Turritella 3-plicata.
Neera cuspidata. Triforis adversum.
Pandora obtusa. Columbella linnei.
Venus apicalis. Cardita trapezia.
Modiola barbata.
Seventeen species are common to five regions.
Neera costellata. Pecten hyalinus.
Tellina pulchella. varius.
Venus ovata. Crania ringens.
Cardita squamosa. Natica pulchella.
Arca tetragona. Rissoa ventricosa.
Pecten polymorphus. cimicoides.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 171
Rissoa reticulata. | Columbella rustica.
Trochus exiguus. | Conus mediterraneus.
Terebratula detruncata.
When we inquire into the history of the species having such extensive
ranges in depth, we find that more than one-half of them are such as have
a wide geographic range, extending in almost every case to the British seas,
and in some of those exhibiting the greatest range in depth, still further north ;
many of them also ranging in the Atlantic far south of the gut of Gibraltar.
If, again, we inquire into the species of Mollusca which are common to four
out of the eight A2gean regions in depth, we find that there are 38 such, 2
of which are either British or Biscayan, and 2 are doubtfully British, whilst
of the remaining 15, 6 are distinctly represented by corresponding speoics in
the north. Thus among the Testacea having the widest range in depth one
third are Celtic or northern forms, whilst out of the remainder of Aigean Tes~
tacea, those ranging through less than four regions, only a little above a fifth
are common to the British seas. One-half of the Celtic forms in the Hgean
which are not common to four or more zones in depth, are found among the
cosmopolitan Testacea, inhabiting the uppermost part of the littoral zone.
From these facts we may fairly draw a general inference, that the extent of the
range of a species in depth is correspondent with its geographical distribution.
The proportion of Celtic forms in the faunz of the zones varies in the
several great families of Testacea. In the accompanying tables I have exhibited
this variation conchologically, in order that they may be more useful to the geo-
logist than if the unpreservable species were included. It will be seen that
there is a great disproportion in several of the regions between the number
of Celtic forms of Univalves and of Bivalves, that whilst the Monomyaria
and Dimyaria range as high as 35 and 30 per cent., the highest range of the
Holostomatous univalve is only 13 and a fraction, and of the Siphonostoma-
tous but 8, whilst the Aspiral species preserve a uniform per-centage of 6 in
the three highest zones and of 3 in the three following.
Conchological Table, No. I.
Distribution of Shells in depth.
ee nL) (Ga el eee
Aigean
Fatal Ill. | IV. | V. | VI. | VII. |VII.
—
=
_
2 lesa 1/ 0
G4yvGil ak
Multivalves(molluscous)| 7| 3] 2) O|} 2
Patelliform univalves ..| 20} 11/ 3] 2] 3] 5
Tubular univalves (Den-
Sere oe CNR 2) Sie 8 SGN ae EE aN 2a A” Ra
Holostomatous spiral uni-
valves (with Bulle and
Auricula) .........-| 115 | 50 | 40 | 40 | 44 | 35 | 28 | 17 | 15
Siphonostomat. and con-
volute spiral univalves.| 104 | 40 | 27 | 30 | 41 | 36 | 30) 16 | 5
Testaceous Pteropoda and
Nucleobranchia...... 12 1 0; O Oo; 0} O 3 | 12
Brachiopoda.......... Sel Oil a5 Ole las Aaah eas aati AW ie
Conchifera Lamellibran-
chiata........ ues 135 | 28 | 53 | 52 | 68 | 58 | 48 | 34 | 28
408 |147 |129 |126 |142 |141 |119 | 85 | 66
a
172 REPORT—1843.
Conchological Table, No. II.
Distribution of Celtic forms in the several zones.
| oy fu. | om liv. |} v. | ove va. lve.
Multivalvesous: <. celteoun ] Gris 1 ] 1 ] 0
Patelliform univalves...... 0 1 Li ae dol pelle Ba aga al Ppl
Tubular univalves ........ 1 1 Or eO sO.) 20a Onteaae
Holostomatous spiral uni- |
“cl | vinta pe thet a5 <0 30 12) 9118/16/14] 11] 81 4
Siphonostomatous spiral uni-
valves ...... I lg wi: Sh Mi haw i bas iI Ph 2 Menard le
Testaceous Pteropoda, and
Nucleobranchia ........ nem erate ari dh seca! CK 0; 0
Brachiopod a. qa5tes 90° Seay rie Of Oro.” OC tam
ConchiferaLamellibranchiatal 16 | 25 | 28 | 39 | 33 | 19 | 11 vi
24} 41 | 50 | 66} 57 | 39 | 27 | 18
II Il \| ll Il} Ul | Al
peed aE fe OL RR aR
solo lwvlulswis isis
oO is) iq?) oO oO oO ie] oO
bal a) Lar J bar | be | be] ar] Le |
° oO ° ° a ° Q ie)
@ o oO ie) (> oD Oo oO
seleptsiebilgeshs ]s 1s
ee pose | ge PopR | FR T ses gee
The importance of these results must be obvious to the geologist, The
inductions as to climate or distribution which he may draw from his exami-
tion of the Testacea of a given stratum, will vary according to the depth in
which those Testacea lived and the ground on which they lived ; for every
zone of depth yields a different percentage ; and as the nature of the ground
determines the tribe of Testacea which frequents it, and as every tribe yields
a different per-centage, according to the variation of character of the sea-bot-
tom, so will the conclusions of the geologist vary and become uncertain. The
remedy is however obvious. By carefully observing the mineral character of
the stratum in order to ascertain the nature of the former sea-bottom, by
noticing the associations of species and the relative abundance of the in-
dividuals of each in order to ascertain the depth, and by calculating the per-
centage of northern or southern forms separately for each tribe, our conclu-
sions will doubtless approximate very nearly to the truth.
A comparison of the Testacea and other animals of the lowest zones with
those of the higher exhibits a very great distinction in the hues of the species,
those of the depths being for the most part white or colourless, whilst those
of the higher regions, in a great number of instances, exhibit brilliant combi-
nations of colour. The results of an inquiry into this subject are as follows :
The majority of shells of the lowest zone are white or transparent : if tinted,
rose is the hue; a very few exhibit markings of any other colour. In the
seventh region white species are also very abundant, though by no means
forming a proportion so great as in the eighth. Brownish-red, the prevalent
hue of the Brachiopoda, also gives a character of colour to the fauna of this
zone: the Crustacea found in it are red. In the sixth zone the colours
become brighter, reds and yellows prevailing, generally, however, uniformly
colouring the shell. In the fifth region many species are banded or clouded
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 173
with various combinations of colours, and the number of white species has
greatly diminished. In the fourth, purple hues are frequent, and contrasts
of colour common. In the third and second green and blue tints are met
with, sometimes very vivid, but the gayest combinations of colour are seen in
the littoral zone, as well as the most brilliant whites.
The animals of Testacea and the Radiata of the higher zones are much more
brilliantly coloured than those of the lower, where they are usually white, what-
ever the hue of the shell may be. Thus the genus Trochus is an example
of a group of forms mostly presenting the most brilliant hues both of shell
and animal; but whilst the animals of such species as inhabit the littoral zone
are gaily chequered with many vivid hues, those of the greater depth, though
their shells are almost as brightly coloured as the coverings of their allies
nearer the surface, have their animals for the most part of an uniform yellow
or reddish hue, or else entirely white.
The chief cause of this increase of intensity of colour as we ascend is doubt-
less the increased amount of light above a certain depth. But the feeding
grounds of the animals would appear to exert a modifying influence, and the
reds and greens may be in many cases attributed to the abundance of nulli.
pore and of the Caulerpa prolifera, a sea-weed of the most brilliant pea-
green, the fronds of which the Mollusca of that colour, such as Nerita viridis,
make their chosen residence.
The eight regions in depth are the scene of incessant change. The death
of the individuals of the several species inhabiting them, the continual acces-
sion, deposition and sometimes washing away of sediment and coarser de-
posits, the action of the secondary influences and the changes of elevation
which appear to be periodically taking place in the eastern Mediterranean,
are ever modifying their character, As each region shallows or deepens, its
animal inhabitants must vary in specific associations, for the depression which
may cause one species to dwindle away and die will cause another to multiply.
The animals themselves, too, by their over-multiplication, appear to be the
cause of their own specific destruction. As the influence of the nature of
sea-bottom determines in a great measure the species present on that bottom,
the multiplication of individuals dependent on the rapid reproduction of suc-
cessive generations of Mollusca, &c. will of itself change the ground and
render it unfit for the continuation of life in that locality until a new layer of
sedimentary matter, uncharged with living organic contents, deposited on the
bed formed by the exuviz of the exhausted species, forms a fresh soil for
similar or other animals to thrive, attain their maximum, and from the same
cause die off. This, I have reason to believe, is the case, from my observa-
tions in the British as well as the Mediterranean seas. The geologist will
see in it an explanation of the phenomenon of interstratification of fossilife-
rous and non-fossiliferous beds.
Every species has three maxima of development,—in depth, in geographic
space, in time. In depth we find a species at first represented by few indi-
viduals, which become more and more numerous until they reach a certain
point, after which they again gradually diminish, and at length altogether
disappear. So also in the geographic and geologic distribution of animals.
Sometimes the genus to which the species belongs ceases with its disappear-
ance, but not unfrequently a succession of similar species are kept up, repre-
sentative as it were of each other. When there is such a representation the
minimum of one species usually commences before that of which it is the
representative has attained its correspondent minimum. Forms of repre-
sentative species are similar, often only to be distinguished by critical exami-
nation. When-a genus includes several groups of forms or subgenera, we
174 REPORT—1843.
may have a double or treble series of representations, in which case they are
very generally parallel. The following examples from the A®gean fauna
will serve to illustrate the representation in depth.
Laake ss: ‘ee boysii. Min. IT. Max. III. Min. V.
Ligula profundissima. Min. VI. Max. VIII.
(cee margaritacea. Min. II. Max. IV. Min. VI.
Ribena Nucula polii. Min. V. Max. VIII.
tne emarginata. Min. II. Max. IV. Min. V.
Nucula striata. Min. IV. Max. VI. Min. VIII.
Cardium papillosum. Min. IJ. Max. IV. Min. VI.
Carprum. earitan minimum. Min. VI. Max. VIII.
Cardita calyculata. Max. I.
CarDITA,. | Cardita trapezia. Min. I. Max. IV. Min. VI.
Cardita squamosa. Min. IV. Max. VI. Min. VIII.
barbata. Max. I.
Asse {ee Min. I. Max. IV. Min. VIII.
scabra. Min. IV.? Max. VII. Min. VIII.
imbricata. Min. V. Max. VIII.
(ere: Max. II. Min. III.
exiguus. Min. II. Max. V. Min. VII.
Toons | ziziphinus. Min. III. Max. IV. Min. V.
millegranus. Min. V. Max. VII. Min. VIII.
variabilis. Min. I.? Max, II. Min. IV.
NASssA... | satin Max. IV.? Min. V.
intermedia. Min. V. Max. VII. Min. VIII.
In cases equally evident, but where the maxima and minima are not so
definite, the succession of representations may be exemplified thus :
feameta. Ill. IV. V.
cuneata.
Lima .. V.
elongata. VI. VII. VIII.
granulata. I. II.
Rissoa . cimicoides. II. III, IV, V. VI.
reticulata. V. VI. VII. VIII.
Genera like species have a fixed maximum of development in depth, not
being irregularly distributed in the several zones, but presenting their greatest
assemblage of species in some one, whilst the numbers fall away more or less
gradually in the preceding and following zones. In making calculations of
the maxima of genera in depth, we must be careful to exclude all stragglers
from the zones in which they may occur, otherwise our figures will be un-
true. In the following table I have exhibited the specific distribution in
depth of such of the AZgean genera as present the greatest number of species.
Aegean! y. | 1. | IU. | IV. | V. | VL. | VIL | VII.
| Cardium)!5.0: } 9 2 3 3 6 3 KE] 1 af
Péuten! tis 2.2% 14 0 4, 6 8 9; 11 4, 5
LUTE ao en mmeoe eee tte [i 5 6 8 8 6 g 1 2 |
Rissoa it s.2 Q1 | 14] 10 7 7 3 3} 3 2
Trochus...... 98 - LOs LOnels Lo 9 if 5 1. |
Pleurotoma....| 24} 3] 5] 7410) 11 9.4. 8 Poa
INGSSH) Fes. rele 14 3 6 4: 4 ] 4 1] 1
|
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. Ma
The consideration of the representation in space forms an important ele-
ment in our comparisons between the faunas of distinct seas in the same or re-
presentative parallels. The analogies between species in the northern and
southern, the eastern and western hemispheres, are instances. But there is
another application of it which I would make here. The preceding tables
and list afford indications of a very interesting law of marine distribution,
probable @ priori, but hitherto unproved. The assemblage of cosmopolitan
species at the water's edge, the abundance of peculiar climatal forms in the
highest zone, where Celtic species are scarce, the increase in the number of
the latter as we descend, and when they again diminish the representation of
northern forms in the lower regions, and the abundance of remains of Ptero-
poda in the lowest, with the general aspect of the associations of species in
all, are facts which fairly lead to an inference that parallels in latitude are
equivalent to regions in depth, correspondent to that law in terrestrial distri-
bution which holds that parallels in latitude are representative of regions of
elevation. In each case the analogy is maintained, not by identical species
only, but mainly by representative forms; and accordingly, although we find
fewer northern species in the faunas of the lower zones, the number of forms
representative of northern species is so great as to give them a much more
boreal or subboreal character than is presented by those regions where iden-
tical forms are more abundant.
The consideration of the law of representation in time illustrates importantly
the history of the very few species hitherto known only as distinct, which
were discovered during the course of these researches in the gean. They are
. either such species as have had their maxima during the tertiary era and are
now fast approaching extinction, or such as had their infancy in the latest
preadamic formations and are now attaining their maxima. Of the first,
Nassa substriaia, hitherto regarded as a characteristic tertiary shell, is an in-
stance. Abounding in all the latest tertiaries of the Archipelago and of
Europe generally, apparently gregarious, half a dozen straggling individuals
were all that occurred in above 150 dredgings throughout the gean, those
too in a region below their usual habitation when the species was in its prime.
Of the second, Neera costulata is an example; a few specimens of which
only had been derived from tertiary deposits.
The result of the examination of the Aigean fauna does not hold out much
prospect of the discovery of any more important extinct forms in a living
state. The very few which I have been so fortunate as to discover are not
such as materially to disturb the calculations of the geologist, especially if he
takes into consideration the relations of each species to others and to its own
maximum and minimum in time and geographic distribution. To those who
have looked forward to the finding of lost forms in the greater depths of the
sea, the catalogues I here present to the Association must be unsatisfactory ;
for though two or three such have occurred, the majority of species in the
great depths are either described existing forms, or altogether new. The zero
of animal life in depth has been too nearly approached to hold out further
hopes. The indefatigable researches of Captain Graves and his officers have
supplied me, since my return, with a mass of new data from all depths and
from many new localities; but the result of their examination has been to
confirm the calculations I had made from my own observations, and to lead
to the pleasing hope that the researches embodied in this report will form a
safe base-line for future investigations in the same department of philosophic
zoology.
Were the bottom of the /Egean sea, with its present inhabitants, to be ele-
vated and converted into dry land, or even that sea be filled up by a long
176 REPORT—1843.
series of sedimentary depositions, the evidences of its fauna which would be
presented may be summed up as follows :—
1. Of the higher animals, the marine Vertebrata, the remains would be
scanty and widely scattered.
2. Of the highest tribe of Mollusea, the Cephalopoda, which though poor
in species is rich in individuals, there would be but few traces, saving of the
Sepia, the shell of which would be found in the sandy strata forming parts
of the coast lines of the elevated sea-bed,
3. Of the Nudibranchous Mollusca there would not, in all probability, be
a trace to assure us of their having been; and thus, though we have every
reason to suppose from analogy that those beautiful and highly character-
istic animals lived in the tertiary periods of the earth’s history, if not in older
ages, as well as now, there is not the slightest remain to tell of their former
existence.
4. Of the Pteropoda and Nucleobranchiata the shell-less tribes would be
equally lost with the Nudibranchia, whilst of the shelled species we should
find their remains in immense quantity characteristic of the soft chalky deposits
derived from the lowest of our regions of depth.
5. The Brachiopoda we should find in deeply-buried beds of nullipore and
gravel, and from their abundance we could at once predict the depth in which
those beds were formed.
6. The Lamellibranchiate Mollusca we should find most abundant in the
soft clays and muds, in such deposits generally presenting both valves in their
natural position, whilst such species as live on gravelly and open bottoms
would be found mostly in the state of single valves.
7. The testaceous Gasteropoda would be found in all formations, but more
abundant in gravelly than in muddy deposits. In any inferences we might
wish to draw regarding the northern or southern character of the fauna, or
on the climate under which it existed, whether from univalves or bivalves,
our conclusions would vary according to the depth in which the particular
stratum examined was found, and on the class of Mollusca which prevailed
in the locality explored.
8. The Chitons would be found only in the state of single valves, and pro-
bably but rarely, for such species as are abundant, living among disjointed
masses of rock and rolled pebbles, which would afterwards go to form con-
glomerate, would in all probability be destroyed, as would also be the case
with the greater number of sublittoral Mollusca.
9. The Mollusca tunicata would disappear altogether, though now form-
ing an important link between the Mediterranean and more northern seas.
10. Of the Arachnodermatous Radiata there would not be found a trace,
unless the membranous skeleton of the Veled/a should under some peculiarly
favourable circumstances be preserved in sand.
11. Of the Echinodermata certain species of Achinus would be found en-
tire; species of Cidaris, on account of the depth at which that animal lives,
would be not unfrequent, in certain strata, as the region in which it is found
bounds the great lowermost region of chalky mud ; the spines would be found
occasionally in that deposit, far removed from the bodies to which they be-
longed. Starfishes, saving such as live on mud or sand, would be only evi-
denced by the occasional preservation of their ossicula. Of the extent of
their distribution and number of species no correct idea could be formed.
Of the numerous Holothuriade and Sipunculide it is to be feared there
would be no traces. The single Crinoidal animal would be rarely preserved
entire, but its ossicula and cup-like base would be found in the more shelly
deposits,
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 177
12. Of the Zoophyta the corneous species might leave impressions resem-
bling those of Graptolites in the shales formed from the dark muds on which
they live. The Corals would be few, but perhaps plentiful in the shelly beds,
mostly however fragmentary. The Cladocora cespitosa, where present, would
infallibly mark the bounds of the sea, and from the size of its masses, might
be preserved in conglomerates where the Testacea would have perished. The
Aectinie would have disappeared altogether.
13. Of the Sponges, traces might be found of the more siliceous species
when buried under favourable circumstances.
14. The Articulata, except the shelled Annelides, would be for the most
part in a fragmentary state.
15. Foraminifera would be found in all deposits, their minuteness being their
protection ; but they would occur most abundantly in the highest and lowest
beds, distinct species being characteristic of each.
16. Tracts would be found almost entirely deficient in fossils; some, such
as the mud of the Gulf of Smyrna, containing but few and scattered, whilst si-
milar muds in other localities would abound in organic contents. On sandy de-
posits formed at any considerable depth they would be very scarce and often
altogether absent. Fossiliferous strata would generally alternate with such
as contain few or no imbedded organic remains. Whilst at present the littoral
zone presents the greatest number and variety of animal and vegetable in-
habitants, including those most characteristic of the Mediterranean sea, when
upheaved and consolidated, their remains would probably be imperfect as
compared with those of the natives of deeper regions, in consequence of the
vicissitudes to which they are exposed and the rocky and conglomeratic strata
in which the greater number would be imbedded. A great part of the con-
glomerates and sandstones found would present no traces of animal life, which
would be most abundant in the shales and calcareous consolidated muds.
Supposing such an elevation of the sea-bottom of the /Egean to have taken
place, a knowledge of the associations of species in the Regions of Depth
would enable us to form a pretty accurate notion of the depth of water in
which each bed was deposited. This I had an opportunity of exemplifying
at Santorin. During a visit to that remarkable volcanic crater, in company
with Lieut. Spratt, we carefully examined the little island of Neokaimeni,
which came up in 1707, with a view to ascertain, if possible, the depth at
which the eruption took place from any portion of the sea-bottom which
might be included in its substance. Our search was successful, for imbedded
in the pumice was a thin stratum of sea-bottom with its testaceous inhabitants
in beautiful preservation. The following were the species :—
Pectunculus pilosus, fine and double, the valves closed; Arca tetragona,
Cardita trapezia, Cytherea apicalis.
Trochus ziziphinus, large and fine; T. fanulum, T. exiguus, and J. cou-
tourii; Turbo rugosus and sanguineus; Phasianella pulla, Turritella 3-cos-
tata, Rissoa cimicoides, Cerithium lima, Pleurotoma gracilis.
A Serpula, fragments of Cellepora and Millepora.
Now there are only two of the regions in depth in which such an associa-
tion of species would be met with,—the fourth and the fifth, Had it been the
sixth, Zrochus ziziphinus would have been replaced by its representative
Trochus millegranus. In the third Arca tetragona has not commenced its
range, but in the fourth and fifth we found all the species named. The state of
the Pectunculus and the Trochus ziziphinus indicating their maxima, with
the numbers taken of some of the others, refer us to the fourth region as the
province in which the sea-bottom on which they lived was formed, é. e. in
1843. N
178 REPORT—1843,
a depth between twenty and thirty-five fathoms. The thinness of the layer
of organic remains resting in pumice indicated that no long period had past
since a former disturbance of the bottom. The state of the bivalves, their
shells double and their valves closed, with the epidermis remaining, indicated
that they had been suddenly destroyed, for when Pectunculi and Arce die
naturally the valves either separate or remain gaping. ‘They had, doubtless,
been smothered in the shower of pumiceous ash which now covers them.
The Bay of Santorin, close to the island in question, afforded us no sound-
ings with 150 fathoms line, so that either a high bank, on which lived the
Mollusca enumerated, existed there in 1707, before the eruption, or the bot-
tom was uniformly such as the association of animals on it certainly indicates,
in which case a depression of more than 100 fathoms must have taken place
in consequence of the convulsion.
A similar application may be made of the knowledge of associations of
species in depth to the elucidation of the deposits of the tertiary and even of
older periods. ‘The determination of the depth by such means is of great
importance, for we have already seen how calculations as to climate and
northern or southern character of fauna may mislead, unless we attain a
knowledge of the region in which the strata were deposited.
The bottom-of the Aigean is probably gradually shallowing. The streams
which pour into it are thickly charged with sediment. The lowest depth
explored was 230 fathoms. Now when the sedimentary deposit shall have
filled up that region and brought it to the lowest range of the region next
above, it will present a thickness of 725 feet. We have seen that this lowest
region had everywhere a bottom of yellowish mud, and that similar animal
forms prevailed throughout its extent. Now the strata which shall have been
formed by the filling up of that region will present throughout an uniform
mineral character closely resembling that of chalk, and will be found charged
with characteristic organic remains and abounding in Foraminifera. We shall
in fact have an antitype of the chalk. But the #gean is far deeper through
a great portion of its extent than 230 fathoms. The depth below this point
will doubtless be filled with a similar mineral deposit, in places perhaps several
thousand feet in thickness. But we have seen that the diminution in the
number of species and of individuals as we descend in this lowest region
pointed to a not far distant zero ; therefore the greater part of this immense
under-deposit will in all probability be altogether void of organic remains.
When indurated it would present the appearance of a great portion of the
immense beds of scaglia otf Apennine limestone which form such extensive
districts in the South of Europe and West of Asia. This is supposing no
change of level takes place during the deposition of the chalky mud. But
any depression, rapid or gradual, will add to the extent of this great stratum,
and by supposing such phznomenon to occur,—and the probability of its
occurrence is attested by numerous examples of such in the Archipelago,—
we may have a cretaceous formation produced of uniform mineral character
and of indefinite thickness. On the other hand, any elevation, by raising the
upper portions of the lower zone into the region next above it, will cause a
correspondent change in its fauna, and if a depression ensue, we shall have
an alternation of faunas, indicating very different depths and presenting very
distinct zoological combinations.
Similar considerations respecting the other regions in depth must occur to
the zoo-geologist who examines the facts embodied in the catalogues and
tables of this report. I shall not swell its pages further by entering more at
length into this attractive portion of my subject, which I leave to the conside-
le
nial
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 179
ration of more experienced inquirers, with the exception of calling attention
to one other point in zoo-geology, which interested me in the course of my
researches. It is this.
A very slight depression of land in the Gulf of Macri on the coast of
Lycia, would now plunge below the sea muddy tracts, abounding in Melania,
Melanopsis, Neritina and other freshwater Mollusca, Their successors in the
first formed shallows would be Cerithium mammillatum and a few bivalves, the
former mollusk in myriads. A drift of sand over this Cerithium mud would
call into existence a new fauna, and every successive depression or elevation,
however slight, would produce considerable zoological changes, for the sub-
divisions of the uppermost region are of small extent in depth, and very
liable to be affected by secondary influences.
Now an inspection of the ancient monuments of the ruins of Telmessus
proyes that such elevations and depressions of small, but as regards animated
nature, important extent, have occurred several times during the historical
period ; and a section of the great plain of Macri would doubtless exhibit
such alternations of freshwater and marine strata with their characteristic
organic contents.
In the preceding pages I have put forward several generalizations which to
many may appear to be founded on inductions drawn from too limited a
number of facts. The objection is, to a certain extent, true ; though my
data have been more numerous than would appear from this report, since
the general conclusions embodied in it have not been founded only upon the
observations in the AEgean, but also on a long series of researches previously
conducted in the British seas. In the present state of the subject specula-
tion is unavoidable, and indeed necessary for its advancement. If it be as
important as the author believes, further researches are imperatively called
for ; and since this branch of inquiry, as at present conducted, may be said
to have originated entirely with the British Association, he hopes that
through encouragement afforded by that body, other and abler observers
may be induced to enter the field, one in which the labourers require support,
involving as it does time, expense and personal risk. Should the officers of
the Navy and the members of Yacht Clubs take an interest in the sub-
ject, much might be done through their aid. To the surveying service the
author from experience looks forward confidently for most valuable observa-
tions. Since questions of importance to navigation and commerce are inti-
mately connected with this inquiry, it is not too much to look forward even-
tually to government for its support, the more so as the means of most natu-
ralists—votaries of a science in which the pleasure of discovery is the only
reward—do not warrant their adventuring privately in such researches.
Note.—In drawing up the tables of species embodied in this report, I have
derived valuable assistance from several scientific friends, especially from
Mr. Thompson of Belfast, who enabled me to compare my collections with a
series of Mediterranean Testacea named by Michaud; from Mr. Cuming, in
whose splendid collection is a series of Sicilian shells from Philippi; and from
Mr. Harvey, who most kindly examined the Alge necessary for the elucida-
tion of the regions of depth.
180
REPORT—1843.
APPENDIX No. I.
Examples of Dredging Papers, selected in order to show the associations of species
in the several regions.
The numerous dredging operations on which this Report is
founded were all registered in a similar manner.
The accentuated numbers in the column of “ dead specimens” refer to the disunited
valves of Conchifera and Brachiopoda.
September 12, 1842,
Gulf of Smyrna, o
Mouth of Hermus.
Seven fathoms.
Half a mile.
Dark mud.
nic
ae
o=
eq Observations.
os
4’ |Fullgrownvalves.
3’ |Full size.
v4
3’ Hitherto a fossil.
8’ |
3’ |
.
v |
10’ |
8-50’
a Young speci-
10’1.| mens.
1 |Much worn.
30
| 3-15’
30
12
12 )
1
‘|
6 (New.
8 ie young.
5
2 ; ¥
bi
10
8 |Hitherto a fossil.
2
eal
18 |
‘. i Il.
| Date .. ‘ ce
DaiOUS Fees seee nascar eee May 29 184d yw hudhct tint eee IS? aoe
Locality .......ssccssesseveee Nousa Bay, Paros. Locality, ...000c0s.es:ve: ie
Depth....2....-cseeeeeeseeers Five to six fathoms. Depth
Distance from shore ...... (Within the Bay.) tt as
GrOuN «2. .sessseeeereeeenees Mud and sandy mud. =| Gyound... }
REGION ceceesecseceesereoveces II i Naser 2.52.
2 ay 3 | ) =
‘ [38] Se | end Se
Species. ea Sz Observations. || Species. 3 |
| Z ¢ a As |
Pinna squamosa...... | 0 i Pecten sulcatus ...... . 0
Modiola tulipa ...... 1 0 | In sandy mud. |—— varius ..... scttese 0 )
Pecten polymorphus. 4 6’ Modiola barbata ah 2 |
—— hyalinus......... ee 0 ‘Solen tenuis ........... Ay]
Nucula margaritacea. 0 | 40’ | Indark mud. | coarctatus ...... 0)
Cytherea chione...... 0 i 'Thracia pubescens ...| 2 |
— venetiana ...... 1] 3-5 | Ligula boysii ......... 0)
—— apicalis ......... 1 | 2-12’ | | Pandora obtusa ....... 0)
Artemis lincta......... | o| ¥ | Tellina donacina ...... 5
Pullastra virginea .... 0 5’ | Corbula nucleus ...... 12
Venus verrucosa...... 0 se 'Cardium echinatum...| 0
Tellina donacina ..... 0 | 1-3’ | Artemis lincta ......... 0
— balaustina...... 0 Al Montacuta, sp........+. 0
Ligula boysii ......... 0 | 2-10’ Nucula margaritacea..| 5
Lucina lactea ......... | 0 | 2-38’ —— emarginata...... 6
—— squamosa......., 0} 3° | Dentalium9-costatum) 6
—— rotundata ...... 0 4’ Turritella terebra ....) 6
Cardium rusticum ...| 0 y {A strong valve. | Parthenia elegantissi-| 0 |
—— exiguum......... | A ee a subulata [ma} 0
Cardita sulcata ...... = ; \Bulla truncatula...... 0
Patella scutellaris ...| 0 | 11 Wapned im fom | striatal... 0
Calyptrea sinense...| 0 2 i ‘ Rissoa monodonta..... 0 |
Bulla hydatis .......-- ie Obe TR's Ringuicula auriculata.| 0
Turritella 3-plicata.... 0 1 Pleurotomaformicaria 0
Trochuscanaliculatus 0); 4 Cerithium angustis- 0
Cerithium lima ...... ee AS | SIMUM ........eeee |
—vilgatum ....... 12} 8 | Buccinum variabile...) 0 |
Murex fistulosus...... | ll 0 |Indark mud. |—— granulatum....... 0
Aplysia depilans...... 1 0 | ‘Murex brandaris ......, 0 |
Ostrzea plicatula...... 0} 10’ \Natica pulchella ......) 0 |
‘Calyptrea sinense ....| 2 |
U
Radiata.—Asterias, sp. Ophiura albida.
thuria tubulosa. Caryophyllia cyathus. Sponges.
Several Crustacea. Five specimens of a Gobius.
Plants.—Zostera oceanica.
Dictyomenia volubilis.
Acetabularia.
Holo} |} A
| Radiata.—Amphiura chiagi. Two specimens of Chi-
Caulerpa prolifera. |
‘rodota. Cucumaria pentactes, 2. No Zoophytes. —
| Crustacea.
Two species of Serpula.
A few Annelides.
Two
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA.
18k
Il.
| Date ...cseceseeeeeeseeee Aug. 17, 1841. -|
Locality ..................Bay of Vathy, Amorgo. |
Depth............00e..000510 to 15 fathoms.
Distance from shore ... Within the port.
Ground .................-Sand,gravellyand shelly.
PRE RIONA oes fobs esees sce: III.
Species Bim | Ora Observations.
Ss| Aa
ZA =
Modiola tulipa...... eae | 0 V
Pecten polymorphus .| 1 | 30
—— opercularis......| 0 3’ {All very small.
Cardita trapezia ......| 0 1’
—— sulcata .......... 0 3’ |
Cardium exiguum 0 ae
—— papillosum ....., 0| 50’
Nucula margaritacea.|} 3 | 50’
—— emarginata...... 2) 15
Ligula boysii ......... 0! 50’
Lucina transyersa ....| 0 1’
'— lactea....... sees} O | 50?
—— hiatelloides...... 3 | 30
Pleurotoma attenuata! 0 1
I @EENSIS ....+....| 7 1 |New.
Rissoa pulchella ...... 0 5 |Hitherto a fossil.
Trochus magus ....... 0 1
Cerithium lima ....... 0 | 60
Nerita viridis .......... 0 2
‘|Natica millepunctata.) 0 2
j|—— guilleminii [ma 0 1
Parthenia elegantissi-- 0 | 10
Marginella clandesti-| 0 1
‘Bulla striatula [ma} 0 1 |New.
|—— ovulata .......... 0 2
Dentalium9-costatum) 1 | 10
Ophioderma lacertosa, one specimen. LEchino-;
cyamus, dead. A few Crustacea.
IV.
BID AEE ceececccecnccee --....August 29, 1841.
Locality ....... sesseeeese/Head of Cervi Bay, Morea. |
Mepth......<:.. Eee ee 20 fathoms.
Distance from shore ...One mile.
BUMIMTIC a5. akin wn 4c cnees Weedy.
REGION ..2<0=-.+2 006-66 --. 111. (commencement of.)
Modiola tulipa...... Seat ok 0 jA young shell. :
Anomia ephippium...| 0 V
Pecten polymorphus .| 0 4’
—— opercularis...... 2 4’ |Very small.
—— pusio ......... mane 2 1 |Young specimens
Cytherea apicalis......; 0 | 2-3’
Cardium exiguum.....) 4 3’
— levigatum ......| 0 1 |Full size.
Cardita trapezia......| 5 ae
||Nucula emarginata...| 0 ne
Arca lactea ...+-..00.4 16} 10’
i—_— tetragona ........! 2 0 |Young specimens
—— barbata ......000.| 2 1
||Ligula boysii ......./ 0 l’
\|Chiton leevis
|Cerithium vulgatum..
| —— lima. ........seeees
||Chenopus pes-peleca-
|Fusus lignarius
Species. Observations.
No. of li-
ving spec.
No. of
dead spec.
Tellina balaustina ....
Hiatella arctica .......
Dentalium 9-costatum
Natica valenciensii ...
S
Turbo rugosus
Trochus crenulatus...
—— exiguus .........
ziziphinus ......
eeneweres
Triforis adversum [ni
Nassa prismatica
Columbella rustica ...
linneei
—— fasciolarioides...
Murex cristatus
Pleurotomaformicaria
reticulataspinosa
Mitra obsoleta.........
savignii[treeoides
Pleurobranchus calyp-
New.
eeeeeee
In crevices of|
sponge.
secucesossedaspe eer atss |
NNK ORF NN KON RHE RR RENN Y KE OF wow
1 Asterias. 2 Ophioderma lacertosa.
Many sponges, annellides and corallines.
V.
Wate eect i ssseiat. ae Sept. 14, 1842.
Locality ......sesceeeeeees Gulf of Smyrna.
De pihivesate sens: ssesees 26 fathoms.
Distance from shore ...Two miles and a half.
Grown es. cceccncock ss Fine brown mud.
RePIOne.hes cvs nenctvowe Til.
Aviculatarentina......| 3 3’ i phe ar
Hiatella arctica ....... 4 0 other.
Amphiura chiagii.
Plumularie and other Sertulariadz adhering, with
small sponges, to the Aviculz.
VI.
Date, «.accaccscsssesceaees Sept. 16,1842. [Smyrna.
Locality .....scersseceseee Off Long Island, Gulf of
Depth....00..sereneseeeees 28 fathoms.
Ground .........+es+es0e. Yellow sand.
CZION ceseeeeereeeeeeee LLL.
Lucina spinifera ...... 1 | 2’ |
Ligula prismatica .. 0; 3
Pandora obtusa ....... 0 3
Astarte pusilla? ...... 1 0
Ophiura texturata. Comatula mediterranea.
Note.—The two preceding dredges are examples
selected from many such, of unprolific tracts in a
Sertularian zoophytes.
a rn
182
region usually fertile in living inhabitants. In this
case a sea-bottom derived from the debris of fresh
water tertiary formations seems to be the negative
influence.
VIL.
ACE paccieheteceeen tat «e...Dec, 1, 1841.
WOCBUEY a csgaceentes +seeeePort of Sumboli under Cra-
Depth....... Sot SRE 30 fathoms. = [gus, Lycia.
Distance from shore ... Within the basin.
ae re tereesne ...-.Ash-coloured mud.
PRION) occsasveetsnna SnomsiiNG
4S ;
| se) SE
Species, lsu) ox Observations,
z22| 758
Modiola tulipa...... pep ap 1e :
Lima tenera...........| 0 1 SEE
Pecten jacobeus......| 0 | frag. aie =
polymorphus ...| 0 | 10’ sag
—— opercularis......| 0 2’ PS ee
Ostrea plicatula, jun.?}_ 0 | 10’ B68
ATCA NOR.....sesee-ds= 0 | frag. Sah
Pectunculus lineatus... 0; J’ on 8
Nucula emarginata...| 0 | 2’ SB oe
margaritacea ...| 0 | 12/ se
Cardita sulcata ........ 0} 1/ g Ef
—— trapezia .........) 0} 1 £Es
Cardium levigatum..., 0 | 1’ —
—— papillosum......; 0 | 10’ 0.8 2
—— exiguum ..... sve] 0 3¢ Hes
echinatum ......| 0 | 20/ Sak
Venus ovata......s.05.| O| 27 csi2
incompta?......; 0} 1 Zee
Cytherea venetiana.... 0 | 2’ Ses
—— apicalis ..........| 0 | 12/ AEs
Lucina spinifera ......) 0 | 10/ Bau
sinuosa .......... i a oi
commutata ...... O.}- 12 == cane
Tellina donacina...... o| 2 g*ss
Saxicava arctica ...... ig ee SESS
Thracia pubescens ...| 0 | frag. a2
Corbula nucleus ...... 20 | 40’ pe 8.
Ligula prismatica ...., 0 6 Sel 25
DOYSiIi ...s+e. sees 0}. 4 Re. 6
Solen coarctatus [mis} 0 6’ a ae &
Gastrochenacuneifor-| 0 | 2’ ae . ‘Sg
Murex brandaris ...... 0 | frag. Bee I
Aporrhaispes-pelecani} 0 | 2 Foe
Cerithium vulgatum..) 0) 1 23 38
itimps<cstss erate Oilm--5 28-8)
Conus mediterraneus.| 0 | frag. Sa 3
Turritella 3-plicata...) 0} 1 S3ak
Rissoa cimex ......... o| 2 | .§= sy
Trochus exiguus ...... Or rI Lea
—— contourii......... 0; 1 o hee
—— sanguineus......| 0 1 Hnss
Natica pulchella....... 0) 1 ae oor
Bulla hydatis ......... 0 1 E 2 x2
Dentalium9-costatum| 2) 5 Ages
Bulimus acutus.,.....| 0 1 EB &
Leaves of olive and of Quercus coccifer were
REPORT—1843,
VIII.
Date ...... cee eantes ++ August 5. [Paros.
DOGHIGY becs\anertaguseos Off northern extremity of
HUG PU .c secs ssesses ene ace ..40 fathoms.
Distance from shore ... Three miles and a half.
Ground ......... socesesee Weedy
FREPION ventcnncasc. dene <cay)
Ad 3
ihn (52) 22 .
Species. ie % og Observations.
\4e) 8
Pecten pusio .<J....0, | 5 4’
—— opercularis ......| 0 1 |Smail.
'Nucula margaritacea.| 0 2’
|Cytherea apicalis....... 0 V
Cardita squamosa ..... 1 | i
Cardium papillosum.., 0 2
Fusus fasciolarioides .| 1 0 |New.
Murex brandaris .....| 0 3
Vermetus gigas ....... | 0 1
(CONNECUR <1. ans aria? 0 |New.
Trochus exiguus......, 8 2
|Turbo rugosus [dus, 1 0
Pleurobranchus sordi-| 1 0 |New.
Doris tenerrima ...... 2 \New.
gracilis ........ sof we
COCEUIEN caaeednee ec |
Ascidia, four species. |
Aplidium, two species.
Echinocyamus, alive and dead.
ral Crustacea.
Codium tomentosum.
eee
|
ul
found imbedded in the mud. No zoophytes oceurred.|Cerithium lima
SSS
|
i
)
i
‘
|
|
Plumularia. Seve-|
IX.
Mate Ga. dcoeyeseeas ......October 11, 1841. :
Locality ........0:.. +++-.-Off Cape Crio, Asia Minor.
WEPthvceceer rcs. cleus ne ..09 to 70 fathoms.
Distance from shore ... Three-fourths of a mile.
Ground .....2..c0se06 ....Millepore.
Region ts: Neseces..-+ «Vis
'Pecter pes-felis ...... 0 | frag.
hyalinus ......... 0 it
PUSIO!’ cee. 3282s: 0 ¥
| Venus ovata............ 0 ae
\Cytherea apicalis...... 0} 2-2" |
||Lucina bipartita ...... 0 Sy
|Astarte incrassata....) 0 | 4’
| Cardita trapezia ......) 0 amy
|\Area barbata ...... ta] 0 poet
Ineteh T5258. 0 V
Terebratula truncata .| 10 | 6-8’
—— detruncata ...... 18 | 30-10’ |
seminulum ...... 2 0 |
Crania ringens......... 20 8’
| Fusus lavatus ... 5 2 }
eee crispatus.........| 0 3 nee ony
turritellatus ....) 2 5 §
|Pleurotoma .......+.++. 0 | frag.
Columbella linnei ... 2
pad t 2
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA.
48] o8
: Se] Se ‘
Species, 6 eg Observations.
Ze] “8
Triforis adversum ...,| 0 1
Mitra obsoleta........., 0 3
granum ....... «esi 0 1 New.
—— ebenus ,,......... 0 2
Murex cristatus ......| 0 Meath
Trochus fanulum......) 0 wy
Turbo sanguineus..... 0 2
Turritella 3-plicata...) 2 a
Natica valenciensii ...) 0 | frag. |
Cypreea europxa [mis| 0 Ba
Emarginula pated 0 2 |
Lottia unicolor ... 1 3
Chiton rissoi .........., 1) 0 |
iH—— levis .......... pl Hd 0
fascicularis .. 1 0
—— frelandi ........, 1 0 Anew species,
Goniaster, sp., 1 spec. Asterina, sp., 3 spec.
Echinus monilis, many specimens, Cidaris histrix,
abundant, alive.
Echinocyamus, many specimens,
Myriapora truncata, alive.
A small yellow Goby.
X. (by Lieut. Spratt.)
Date sieve... cess 2ses.edaly, 1842,
Locality ....,............,Off east coast of Naxia.
BREAN Ge sere ccavesses cscs --80 to 95 fathoms.
Distance from shore .., Three miles from N.E. Cape.
Ground .......,,... ......Nullipore.
RERTON 0305-0 .2% vepeees VIL.
Terebratula truncata.| 1 0
—— detruncata..,...| 18 6
Pecten varius ......... 6 4’ | AT small,
—— opercularis......| 0 1’ /A small valve,
eeeeet LESLEE. 2. p0i+eciees 1 Be
Lima a aaa sees) O | 1’ (/Youngand small,
Modiola .....,.........| 0 | 2-4 apparentlyfrag.
Hiatella arctica .......| 1 ; O of M. barbata.
Cardita aculeata ...... 0 i
Astarte incrassata ? 0 14
Cytherea apicalis...... 3} 3
Venus ovata.....,...0.| —1 Ya
Area tetragona......... 1; 1’ (Small,
Wi=———8CaDra........5..., O | 2 Small.
Murex cristatus, var.,) 4 2
Pleurotoma maravig-| 1) 2
—— gracilis {ne} 1 0
—— crispata ..,......| 1 1__|Hitherto fossil.
—— reticulata ...., 0 1
—— formicaria ...,..| 1 0
Cerithium lima ......., 2) 6
Trochus exiguus......| 2 1
-|Phasianella pull. Sevan id 0
Rissoa reticulata...,..| 1 3
—— ventricosa ......, 1] 0 {A straggler?
[Turbo rugosus......5..| 2 0
_|Natica pulchella ......| 0 1
; 3m
Species. 3B
Ae
Tornatella fasciata ...| 1
Emarginula elongata,| 0
Chiton leyis ....... scowl
Annelides.—Serpule.
Crustacea,—Some small species.
Radiata.—Echinus monilis and Echinocyamus
dead.
Two species of sponge.
Several zoophytes, including Caryophyllia.
No. of
dead spec.
183
Observations,
Well grown.
ome
pusillus. Species of Cidaris.
XI,
Dato tndiccsseousspseren vce July, 1841.
Locality ...... recseeteres -Off Serpho-Poulo,
Depthaeicihalis puscvedss 95 fathoms.
|| Distance from shore ... Two miles.
Ground ........+,..+s.-.-Millepore.
Regions. attsrenecnite sss VII.
Terebratula truncata.) 0 | 6-4’ |
—— detruncata ,..,,,; 30 | 10-6’ |
lunifera .........! 1 0
Crania ringens,,.....,. 0) 35%
Lima elongata...,... »| O | (2*- iNew.
CLASSA .re0s,0e.--, O | 3/° |New.
Modipla ,...,.-2+s.c0«43| 1 1’ |Very young.
Pecten test ......... 0/| 1-3
—concentricus ...| 2 4’ |New.
—— similis............| 0 6/
Cardita squamosa ..,.! 1 eer
Cytherea apicalis....,.) 0 at
Venus ovata ....005-.,.| 0 4!
Astarte pusilla.......,.| 0 2 |New.
Lucina commutata ...| 0 } aired
bipartita,...,..,.| 0 if
Arca lactea, ......0..... 4) 6 .
Pleurotoma erispata., 1), 3 { Ome ei
—— abyssicola.,...,.., 0 | 3 |New,
——~ wmarivigne ...,,.) 1 7
—— reticulata ,....,.) 1 1
mMinuta ....se000. 0 4 |New.
Fusus muricatus ...... 0; 5
Triforis perversum...| 0 | 1
—— lima ........., Quy yale
Turritella 3-costata.., 0 gyal
|Trochus exiguus ...... 0 a> |
‘Turbo sanguineus und 0 2
Rissoa reticulata [ma) 6 | 36
Marginella clandesti-| 0 2
(Tornatella pusilla ....) 0 1 |New.
Emarginula elongata.) 0 1
capuliformis ..,, 0 ot
Fissurella greca ....,. 0 1
Cleodora pyramidata.| 0 1
Echinus monilis, alive and
Echinocyamus, alive.
Several small Crustacea.
184 REPORT—1843.
XII. | ag) =i
Date sisssscrecvevssseeess Sept, 16, 1841. | Species. 5 sb gs Observations.
Locality ........+ss+0++ee¢Off Ananas Rocks. / Ze| “8
DIED Ulivesssvavvecnsces ...--105 fathoms. |
Distance from shore ...From rocks three miles, from |Lima, crassa ....6....0.- 0 4’ |New.
Ground ..-.eeereerneseese Nullipore. [Milo ten miles. Nucula HOM ev acancenct 0 5’
Regione. sevess Se crests Via. I Striata........eee 1 6’
ise -\|Arca lactea ....... este fe at 1’ |\Young shell.
| 1 33 | Poromya anatinoides .| 0 2’ |New.
Siiaeinns Sa) 3% F Nezra costellata...... ih Ae
lili oe Zz Caan | cuspidata ........| 1 2!
a Hiatella rugosa ....... 0 | frag. |Full grown.
F Pandora obtusa ....... 0 3/
Terebratula vitrea ....| 0 2’ |Dead and worn. ||;-",,. ‘
i— truncata ......... 30 |100-20/Of all ages. foe BY SCOS 22-7 : ~ New:
—— detruncata ...... 100-| 400-6’ |Of all ages. beanies ae
seein tee 18 | 10-8’ Rissoa reticulata ...... 0 6 <a
—— appressa......... 1 0 Adhering to T. meal aia <wieaele eee 4 ;
Crania ringens......... 0 6’ | vitrea. New. | state OS Eres 0 1 WN
Lima elongata......... 0 5’ |New. ee teed eh as a to fossil
Pecten concentricus... 0 | 1/ |New. Ps oupties Bike ts rising
fenextratns...| 0.1. St Naw Atlanta peronii[gulare 0 3)
Spondylus gussonii...) 1 14 Ladas planorboides...| "0 :
ered dich r 7 ? Limacina minuta ...| 0 3
ES paced Wine 0 DY Hyalzea gibbosa ...... 0 3
a y vaginellina ......| 0 1
iNGaire. San Pe we 4 s New \Cleodora pyramidata.| 0 4
ES a wk) 0 2 si 3 species of Criseis?.., 0 | ... |Abundant.
Pleurotoma crispata..| 0 2 { vane fee aoe Annelides.—Ditrupa subulataand pusilla, the latter
rath : ? alive.
pes calbkg | 4 7 noe Crustacea.—Several small species.
Mitra phillipian Men. 0 Fae oo | Radiata—Amphiura chiagi. Spines of Cidaris.
Cerithium lima ...... 0 8 ; ;
Trochus tinei .........) 0 | 6 * XIV.
—— exiguus ..... ve) 1 | 9 (/Hitherto known!) Date ..........00 .-+--- August 2, 1841.
Turbo sanguineus ...... 0 | 24 onlyfossilin the) Locality ..... ...Off Island of Amorgo.
Rissoa reticulata ...... 4 | 11 )| Mediterranean || Depth...............00000 140 fathoms.
Emarginula elongata . 0 | 8 {| basin. | Distance from shore ...Ten miles. [of pumice.) —
price bapepice ve H st oe Grontd \!.capstusasee.tt: White mud with fragments) —
ottia unicolor ...... ew. RESION 2c0.c2-oc0ss seseos VILL. ;
Atlanta peronii .......| 0 2 |Encrusted with :
Hyalza gibbosa ...... 0) J’ | nullipore, and) Anomia polymorpha. 0 | 1-4 /Perhaps a strag-
Cleodora pyramidata.| 0 ay thus rendered) Lima elongata......... | 0} 12’ |New. [gler.
Criseis clava ......... Onl, 7 solid. |——— CrASSA .....2..055 0 5’ |New. [ranean.
—— spinifera......... | 0} 10 \Pecten similis ......... / 0 | 30’ |New to Mediter-
—— dumaisii ......... 0 ss
Pectinura vestita, one (new). Echinocyamus,| fenestratus ...... | 0} 2 \New.
many, dead. Young Cidaris, alive. Echinus mo- pie POs es sees. | 0 1’
nilis, alive and dead. Four species of zoophyte.||Arca tetragona .......| 1 1
Several species of Serpula. Fragment of a Balanus.| LaGteap irs: varan: Onl 16"
Small crabs. Foraminifera. \Cardium minimum ...| 0 a j
|Kellia abyssicola...... 3| 2-4’ New. ;
XIII ‘Ligula profundissima.| 2 | 5-17’ |New. [onlyfossil.|
Date a Sey Hh J avaice Nezra costellata...... 0 7’ |\Hitherto known
BNA t Odean eee eeeneeeee sept. 2. an erigzo.) cus idata Ries 1 1 onl fossil. ;
ead iadesiish > eas ccd par baie the Moa ‘Murex soarantus Neat 0 1 rine a awa
Be sepa tatgeNisougs set shoms. coast.||Cerithium lima .......| 0 1 JA straggler.
Distance from shore...Three miles from Ceryi Reta wiostiife: ee Ae 0 ] Neal aes 4
Ground nuWealsdcevensevene Sandy mud. Parthenia ventricosa .|_ 0 1 |New.
REGION, oss 05s00ecs ae VIL. ‘Eulima subulata ......! 0 1
ae | distorta [gulare) 0 1
caps | aq/J |New to Mediter-|\Dentalium quinquan-- 2 | 30
Pecten similis ......... 0 10 { berth (Bulla utriculus (neal 0 1
Lima elongata.........| 0 3’ |New. Carinaria mediterra- 0 1 |Small.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 185
P| 3 4 3 Beribese-saririsbyreene~ ABD fathomnp.
A Sa a ‘ || Distance from shore ... Two miles.
Rinesine $ 2 2% a aga Ground ....... seceeeeeeesPale yellowish mud.
ed ia Recto 26sec uti oncass. VELL
Atlanta peronii ......- 0 6 ae 3
? Limacina minuta....| 0| 8 [New BS) se
Hyalea gibbosa ...... 0 10 Species. Ao) ye Observations,
—— vaginellina ...... 0} 1 Ze| 48
Criseis clava ..........| 0 | 40 pee ee
—— spinifera ......... 0 | 100 Pecten concentricus..| 0 3’ |New.
—— striata........, 0 4 — hoskynsi......... 0 4’ |New.
OS SS SS SS | Oy) 3"
Idmonea and another zoophyte. Arca imbricata........- 1| 18’
Ophiura abyssicola, alive. Nucula striata ......... 0 oe
Fragments of a Brissus. Serpula, one species ; zgeensis......... 1} 6-5’ |New.
Ditrupa pusilla, and three species of Crustacea. Kellia abyssicola...... 4 20’ |New.
Nevra cuspidata...... Te ee [only fossil.
XV. costellata ....... 1} 8 /|Hitherto known
—— abbreviata ...... 0 3 |New.
Date [steneteneeneeeeeeees Sept. 17, 1841. Ligula profundissima.| 1 | 3-15’
Locality ......sessessesnee Off Milo. Pleurotoma abyssicola| 0 3 |New.
Depth..... Je 150 fathoms. ‘Nassa intermedia, var. 0 | 3. |New.
Distance from shore ...Four miles. Eiiherto fossil
Ground ............ .-sse.Fine white sandy mud. | only in Medi-
Region «...0+...eeeeeeee VIL. Rissoa reticulata......) 0 | 12 terranean, re-
cent in North
Pecten similis ......... 0 30’ |New to Mediter- [na Seas.
— concentricus ....| 0 of [ranean||Marginella clandesti-| 0 | 3
—— dumasii ......... 0 | frag. Dentalium quinquan-| 0 | 36 |
Lima elongata......... 0 8’ |New. \Hyalzacornea[gulare| 0 | frag.
—— CIassa. .....-. eee 0 8’ |New. —— gibbosa .......... 0; 3
Area lactea ..........+- 0 10’ —— vaginellina...... 0; 1
—— scabra........... 0 YV \Cleodora pyramidata.. 0 | 12
Poromya anatinoides .| 0 lV’ |New. Criseis clava............ 0 | many
Kellia abyssicola ...... 0? | 10-50’|New. —— spinifera ......... 0 | many
Nera cuspidata ...... 0 2’ [only as fossil.|—— striata............ 0 | many |
—— costellata........ 0 3’ |Hitherto known||? Limacina minuta....| 0 | many |New.
—— abbreviata ...... 0 2’ |New. Carinaria mediterra-| 0 1
Cardita squamosa ...| 0 Y’ |A young valve. ||Peracle physoides[nea) 0 | 10 (|New.
Ligula profundissima.| 0 | 1-15/
Crania ringens _[ta/ 0 2’ Many Nodosarie and other Foraminifera. The
Terebratula detrunca-| 0 2 Stragglers. carapace of a crab. A very small living sponge.
Murex vaginatus...... 0 1 jAnd two frag-|| Arms of Amphiura chiagii.
Fusus muricatus [na| 0 4 | ments (hitherto
Marginella clandesti-| 0 1 | fossil). XVII
Rissoa reticulata ...... 0 12 °
—— ovulata .......... 0 2 Date... ..secssesssseeees» NOV. 25, 1841. [Asia Minor.
Parthenia ventricosa .| 0 1 |New. | Locality ........006 Seostks S.extremity of Gulf of Macri,
Cerithium lima .......| 0 1 |Straggler ? | Depth... sscaceccsocesees 230 fathoms.
Lottia unicolor ...... 0 1 | Distance from shore ...One mile (shore steep).
Scissurella plicata ....| 0 3 | Ground .....,..eeeeeeeeee Fine yellowish mud.
Peracle physoides 0 3 WIRE PIO TD Go Aaah es eres sees VIII.
Hyalza gibbosa ...... 0 22
——vaginellina......)0 | 1 ‘Terebratula vitrea....,| 0 | 2’
—— COIMNEA...... eee 0 “aaa Ligula profundissima.| 0 3’ |New.
Cleodora pyramidata.. 0 | many | ‘Arcaimbricata[gulare| 1 1
See TTT EET 0 2 Dentalium quinquan. 1 0
=eee Hyalea gibbosa ...... 0 1
Criseis, the three species abundant. Cleodora pyramidata.| 0 8
: Canals spinifera.......| 0 5
XVI. A glassy Serpula, and the corneous tube of an
Date ....sssecsseveeeeeeesDec. 23, 1843. [Asia Minor.) Annelide adhered to the Terebratula ; also a species
Locality .......0s.s.s0.+e5.H. side of Gulf of Macri, jof Alecto and a Lobatula.
186 REPORT—1843.
APPENDIX No. II.
Brief Diagnoses of new species of Mollusca named in the preceding tables.
The new Radiata are described in the Linnzean Transactions.
Order NuCLEOBRANCHIATA.
Genus Lapas, Cantraine.
Ladas planorboides, sp. nov.
L. testa pellucida, alba, levi, compressa, carinata, exalata, anfractibus 4.
Diam. Oy;- Reg. VIII. (frequent.)
Genus Peracte, Forbes.
(I propose this genus for certain small reversed, spiral shells, having the
aperture more or less prolonged into a pointed canal. Fuller details will be
given elsewhere.)
Peracle physoides, sp. nov.
P. testa ovata, alba, pellucidé (epidermide? reticulata); cauda longa,
arcuata, acutissima.
Long. 0-/5- Reg. VIIf. Cyclades, Lycia.
? Bellerophina minuta.
I have enumerated among the Nucleobranchiata a shell under this name,
which I have now good reason to believe is the shell of the larva of (perhaps
many) species of several orders of Mollusca. It is extremely minute, helicoid,
transparent, and of two or three whorls. It abounds in the mud from very
deep water.
GASTEROPODA.
Order NuDIBRANCHIA.
Fam. Doride. Genus Doris, Lin.
Doris aurata, sp. nov.
D. corpore ovali, convexo, levi, succineo, maculis stellatis albis ; branchiis
5—6, flavidis; tentaculis aurantiacis apicibus flavis; pede flavo.
Long. 02 unc. Hab. 50 fathoms. Paros (Lieut. Mansell),
Genus Gonroporis, Forbes.
Goniodoris regalis, sp. nov.
G. corpore elongato, lanceolato, plano, levi; dorso viridi, longitudinaliter
flavo-vittato, albo-marginato; lateribus griseis flavo-maculatis; pede atbo ;
branchiis 10—12, viridibus, flavo-marginatis ; teutaculis azureis.
Long. 4 une. Hab. Littoral. Port Massini, Skanousi. (Lieut. Freeland.)
Goniodoris tenerrima, sp. nov.
G. corpore cuneato, alto, dorso lateribusque griseis lineis interruptis albis
ceeruleisque pictis ; margine flavo ; pede angustissimo albo ; branchiis 10—
12, griseis, pedunculatis ; tentaculis azureis.
Long. 3 unc. Hab. 4 miles from Paros in 40 fathoms, weedy ground.
Goniodoris vivida, sp. nov.
G. corpore subquadrato cceruleo, dorso fascia centrali alba, albo marginato ;
branchiis 7, cceruleis.
Long. 0,3, une. Hab. 7—30 fathoms, weedy ground, Cyclades.
Fam. Melibeade. Genus Metisa@a, Rang.
Melibea? minuta, sp. nov.
M. corpore oblongo, flavido, lateribus in branchiis binis rotundatis lobi-
formis productis.
Long. 07;- Hab. 5 fathoms. Despotico.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 187
The form of the branchie approaches those of Scyll@a, whilst the tentacula
are characteristic of Melibea. This minute nudibranc may possibly belong
to an intermediate genus.
Order INFEROBRANCHIATA.
Fam. Pleurobranchacee. Genus PLEUROBRANCHUS, Cuw.
Pleurobranchus limacoides, sp. nov.
P. corpore (repente) oblongo, levi, aurantiaco ; pallio ovato plano, contra-
subemarginato ; cauda exserta lanceolata ; tentaculis elongatis, linearibus.
Long. 23 unc. Hab. under stones near water-mark among the Cyclades.
Allied to P. oblongus of Cantraine.
Pleurobranchus calyptreoides, sp. nov.
P. corpore ovato, levi, citrino, pallio orbiculari convexo, caud& exserta
lat’ obtusa, tentaculis linearibus. ;
Long. 14 unc. Hab. on sponges, 20 fathoms, Cervi Bay, Morea.
Pleurobranchus scutatus, sp. nov.
P. corpore rotundato, rubro-aurantiaco ; pallio lato scabro, convexo, anticé
producto; cauda pallio occulta ; tentaculis linearibus.
Long. 1 unc. Hab. on Codium tomentosum, in 20 fathoms, Cyclades.
Pleurobranchus sordidus, sp. nov.
P. corpore rotundato convexo; pallio rugoso, sordidé brunneo, anticé pro-
ducto ; pede quadrato, albo ; cauda brevissima ; tentaculis albis linearibus; ore
aurantiaco.
Long. 03 unc. Hab. 40 fathoms off Paros.
Order TECTIBRANCHIATA,
Fam. Aplysiacee. Genus APLYSIA, Lin.
Aplysia saltator, sp. nov.
A. corpore globoso, griseo albo nigroque maculato, tuberculato, tuber-
culis -mucronatis; sinu branchiali parvo; pede angustissimo, tentaculis bre-
vibus.
Long. 2 unc. Alt.1;4;. Hab. 20—30 fathoms. Serpho Bay.
Genus Icarus, Forbes.
(The animal for which I propose to constitute the genus Jearus differs
from Aplysia in having but two tentacula, and in being prolonged posteriorly
into a slender lanceolate tail. The dorsal shield resembles the shell of a Bullea.
A full account of the genus will be published elsewhere.)
Icarus gravesi, sp. nov.
Animal viridum purpureo, alboque variegatum. Testa alba, pellucida.
Long. lv unc. Long. test. 534; unc. Syra, Serpho.
Fam. Aceride. Genus Butta, Lamarck.
Bullea alata, sp. nov.
B. testi orbiculari, spiraliter punctato-striata, labro expanso, spiram exce-
dente, margine integro.
Long. and lat. 03%. Suda Bay, Candia, in 119 fathoms. (Capt. Graves,
1843.)
Genus Buia, Lin.
Bulla retifer, sp. nov.
B. test oblonga, laxé convoluta, longitudinaliter transversimque striata,
epidermide reticulato-vestita, spira truncata, umbilicaté, apertura ovata
superné coarctata; columella marginata.
Long. Ov;. Lat. Oy; une. Serpho.
188 REPORT— 1843.
Bulla striatula, sp. nov.
B. testa oblonga, cylindrica, lactea, transversé undulato-striata, longitudi-
naliter obsoleté striata, vertice subtruncato concavo; spira manifesta; aper-
tura superné lineari, inferné dilatata.
Long. 03; une. Rio, Macri, Servi, Crete, &c.
Bulla turgidula, sp. nov.
B. testa inflata, ovata, alba, polita, inferné supernéque transversé striata,
medio levissimo; apice truncato, umbilicato, margine crenato ; spira occulta ;
apertura angusta, utrinque subrostrata.
Long. 03 unc. Servi, Amorgo.
Bulla cretica, sp.nov.
B. testa globosa, alba, levigata, spira manifesta, umbilicata, margine rotun-
data; apertura superné contracta, inferné dilatata ; columella perforata.
Long. 075 unc. Crete in 119 fathoms. (Capt. Graves, 1843.)
Order ScUTIBRANCHIATA.
Fam. Patelloidee.. Genus Lotria, Gray.
PATELLOIDEA, Quoy and Gaim. Acm#@A, Hartman.
Lottia unicolor, sp. nov. .
L. testa parva, rotundata, subconica, levigata, rubra, apice centrali.
Long. Oy; unc. Asia Minor, Crete, Cyclades.
Order CycLOBRANCHIATA.
Fam. Chitonide. Genus Cuiton, Lin.
Chiton freelandi, sp. nov.
C. valvulis omnibus granulatis, carinatis, areis inferioribus elevatis longitu-
dinaliter obsoleté excavatis; areis superioribus depressis transverse profundé
suleatis; carina levigataé; margine squamoso, squamis tessellatis.
Long. OZ unc. Lat. 07; une. Caria, Delos, Crete (in deep water).
Order CIRRHOBRANCHIATA.
Genus Dentatium, Lin.
Dentalium quinquangulare, sp. nov.
C. testa arcuata, alba, longitudinaliter striata, pentangulari.
Long. 03. Everywhere in the deepest region.
Order PecTINIBRANCHIATA,
Fam. Scalariade. Genus Eutima, Risso.
Eulima unifasciata, sp. nov.
E. testa turrita, levigata, polita, alba, fascia fulva cincta; anfractibus 11,
planiusculis ; apertura ovata.
Long. 03 une. Lycia. Reg. VIII.
Genus Partuenta, Lowe.
= TurBoniLLA, Risso, Pyreiscus, Philippi, = CHEmntirzia, @ Orbigny.
Parthenia ventricosa, sp.nov.
P. testa turrita, acuta, alba, pellucida, levi, polita; anfractibus 9 tumidis,
apertura subquadrata, columella recta, subumbilicata.
Long. 03; une. Cerigo, Cyclades, Lycia. Reg. VIII.
Parthenia turris, sp. nov.
P. testa aciculata, alba, pellucida, levi, polita; anfractibus 11 convexis,
apertura subquadrata, columella recta, imperforata.
Long. Ov; unc. Cyclades. Reg. VIII.
ON EZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 189
Parthenia fasciata, sp. nov.
P. testa turrita, alba, fascia flava; anfractibus 7, planis, ad suturas sub-
angulatis, longitudinaliter costatis, ultimo anfractu 16-costato, basi suban-
gulato, levi; apertura quadrangulari.
Long. 0%; une. Cyclades, Lycia. Reg. VIII.
Parthenia varicosa, sp. nov.
P. testa turrita, albida, fasciis fulvis; anfractibus 11 convexis, varicosis,
spiraliter striatis, longitudinaliter (18—20) costatis, basi rotundato, ecostu-
lato, apertura subquadrata.
Long. 03. Lat. 03; une. Cyclades.
Genus Rissoa, Z'rem.
Rissoa cimicoides, sp. nov.
R. testa ovato-conica, albida, anfractibus 7 convexiusculis, sulcis longitu-
dinalibus spiralibusque granulato-decussatis, ad suturam marginatis, crenu-
latis ; eh ovata, labro externo incrassato.
Long. Ov; une. Crete, Cyclades, Lycia, pene:
Rissoa Geutatls, sp. nov.
R. testa oblonga, alba,.anfractibus 5, spiraliter punctato-striatis ; apertura
ovata inferné angulata; columella recta."
Long. 03% une. Cyclades, Asia Minor.
Rissoa pulchra, sp. nov.
R. testa turrita, alba, anfractibus 6 convexis, longitudinaliter sulcato-striatis
(striis 19), suturis profundis ; apertura ovata, labro simplici.
Long. O75 une. Paros.
Genus ScaLariA, Lam.
Scalaria hellenica, sp. nov.
S. testa turrité, alba, imperforataé, anfractibus 10 convexis, varicosis, spi-
raliter striatis longitudinaliter costatis, costis rotundatis crassiusculis, in ultimo
anfractu 10; apertura marginata, margine radiato-crenato.
Long. 075 une. Cervi.
Genus TurrItELLA, Lam.
Turritella suturalis, sp. nov.
T. testa elongata, alba, anfractibus ventricosis, spiraliter pauci-costatis, ad
suturas excavatis, levigatis.
Long. 3%. Caria.
Fam. Siliguariade. Genus VERMETUS, Adanson.
Vermetus corneus, sp. nov.
V. testa tenui, cornea, pellucida, tereti, transversé corrugata, striataque.
Long. 3 une. Lycia, Cyclades, Crete.
Fam. Trochide. Genus Trocuus, Lin.
Trochus pallidus, sp. nov.
T. testa conoidea, lata, grisea maculis obscuris, anfractibus 5—6 spiraliter
striatis (sub lente striis longitudinalibus), ad suturas planiusculis, ultimo in
medio subexcavato, basi plano angulato; umbilico profundo, albo, margine
" acuto.
Alt. Ov. Lat. bas. 033 une. Amorgo.
Trochus lyciacus, sp. nov.
T.testa conoidea, lata, albida, purpureo maculata (ad umbilicum flammulata),
anfractibus 5—6 spiraliter sulcatis, sulcis transversé striatis, ad suturam pla-
natis, in medio excavatis ; basi plano, marginato ; umbilico parvo; apertura
quadrangulari, columella incrassata.
Alt. 025. Lat. bas. 03% unc. Lycia, Perea.
.
190 REPORT—1843.
Trochus spratti, sp. nov.
T. testa conoided, nigro-brunnea, maculis albis tessellata ; anfractibus 6 con-
vexis spiraliter sulcatis, transversé obliqué striatis, ad suturam planiusculis ;
basi margine rotundato; umbilico parvo, albo; apertura subquadrata.
Alt. Oz. Lat. bas. 07; une. Servi, Cyclades, Lycia, Smyrna.
Trochus gravest, sp. nov.
T. testa conica, albé, brunneda, maculis albidis, epidermide iridescente, an-
fractibus 8 planis, spiraliter transverséque striatis, inferné ad suturam bicin-
gulatis, cingulis planiusculis, crenulatis; basi margine subangulato, spiraliter
sulcato, radialiter striato; umbilico nullo; apertura subquadrata.
Alt. 0¥;. Lat. bas. 0 une. Cyclades, Morea, Lycia.
Fam. Cerithiade. Genus CeritHium, Brug.
Cerithium angustissimum, sp. nov.
C. test4 lineari, anfractibus 13, convexis, longitudinaliter costatis, spiraliter
4-sulcatis, ad suturam marginatis.
Long. 0%;. Lat.02, une. Sporades.
Fam. Muricide. Genus PLeurotroma, Lam.
Pleurotoma teres, F., v. Reeve, Conchologia Iconica.
s turgida, F., loc. cit.
an fortis, F., loc. cit.
» .dyciaca, F., loc. cit.
+ minuta, F., loc. cit.
5 abyssicola, F.., loe. cit.
3 egeensis, F., lee. cit.
+ fallax, F., sp. nov.
P. testa fusiformi, fulva, fascia albida, anfractibus 8, tumidis, longitudina-
liter (16) costatis, spiraliter sulcato-striatis, suturis impressis, apertura ovato-
lanceolata, cauda brevi, lata.
Long. 0Z une. Paros.
Genus Fusus, Lam.
Fusus fasciolarioides, sp. nov.
F. testa oblonga, aurantia fascia interrupta alba, anfractibus 5, spiraliter
striatis, noduloso-(9) costatis, ad suturas appressis, ultimo subangulato;
apertura lanceolata, canali obliqua, longiuscula.
Long. 03%. Lat. 02%. Apert. 0%; une. Cyclades, Lycia.
Fusus kharamanensis, sp. nov.
F. testa elongata, succineo-brunnea, fascif centrali angusta flava, albo ma-
culata, anfractibus 7, angulatis, longitudinaliter 7-costatis, costis in carinam
tuberculatis ; apertura lanceolata, canali latiusculo.
Long. 033. Lat.03;. Apert. 0s; une. Lycia.
Genus Murex, Jin.
Murex brevis, sp. nov.
M.testaalba, ovato-ventricosa, subumbilicata, anfractibus6 (ultimo maximo),
longitudinaliter 8-costatis, spiraliter costato-striatis, costis spiralibus nume-
rosis, alternatis majoribus, omnibus squamosis; canali brevi, angusto, labro
externo fimbriato-plicato.
Long. 072. Lat.02. Apert.03 unc. Paros, Crete.
Genus Nassa, Lam.
Nassa intermedia, sp. nov.
N. testa ovato-oblonga, ventricosa, alba fascia flava, anfractibus 6, ultimo
ON AGEAN INVERTERRATA. 191
spiram excedente, omnibus longitudinaliter costatis, spiraliterque striatis ;
costis 12 fortibus, rotundatis ; aperturé rotundata, canali brevi.
Long. Oy. Lat. Os%. Apert. 07;. Asia Minor, Sporades.
Fam. Jnvolute. Genus Mitra, Lam.
Mitra phillippiana, sp.nov.
M. testa lanceolata flava, fascia obscura albida; anfractibus 7 convexius-
culis, levigatis, politis, labro columellari 3-plicato.
Long. Oxs. Lat. 03. Apert. 0, unc. Milo, Cerigo.
Mitra granum, sp. nov.
M. testa lineari, levigata, nigrida, fascia alba maculis nigris interruptis, an-
fractibus 7; apice costulato, labro interno plicis 3 fortissimis.
Long. +4. Lat. 3%. Naxia.
Mitra littoralis, sp. nov.
M. testa lanceolata, viridi-fusca, fascia alb4 maculis fulvis interruptis; an-
fractibus 6, apice costulato, labro interno 3-plicato.
Long. 3. Lat. 3. Paros, &c.
Genus TornaTELLa, Lam.
Tornatella pusilla, sp. nov.
T. testA ovato-globosa, albidé, anfractibus 4 regulariter profundeque punc-
tato-striatis, apertura oblonga.
Long. Og, Lat. Of; une. Lycia, Naxia.
Tornatella globulina, sp. nov.
T. testa alba, globos4, spira brevi, anfractibus 4 spiraliter striatis, striis
numerosis, simplicibus ; apertura pyriformi, columella incrassata.
Long. O75. Serpho.
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Section Dimyaria.
; Fam. Pyloride. Genus Turacia, Leach.
Thracia pholadomyoides, sp. nov.
T. testa ventricosa, sinuos4, granulata, concentricé suleata, sulcis longitu-
dinalibus paucis (6) decussataé ; umbonibus acutis.
Long. 034. Lat. 14; une. Cape Artemisium (1808).
Genus Licuta, Montagu.
Ligula profundissima, sp. nov.
L. testa oblonga, depressa, tenui, pellucida, candida, posticé angulat&, an-
ticé rotundata ; fovea ligamentali lanceolata.
Long. 03%. Lat. 04 une.
In the 8th Region of depth, everywhere: nearly allied to L. boysi.
Genus Nera, Gray.
Neera attenuata, Forbes in Zool. Proc. 1843.
4, abbreviata, Do. do. 1843.
Genus Poromya, Forbes.
Testa transversa, subzequivalvis, omnino clausa, punctata seu granulata ;
cardo in utraque valvula dente cardinali erecto, subspathuliformi, dentibus
obliquis duobus ad alterum anticum.
Poromya anatinoides, sp. nov.
Testa convexa, orbicularis, subcarinata, ovata, minuté granulata, anticé
truncata, postice subtruncata.
Long. Oss une. Lat. Ov. Reg. VIII. Asia Minor, Cyclades.
192 REPORT—1843.
Fam. Conchacee. Genus Keiiia, Turton (=BorntA, Philippi).
Kellia abyssicola, sp. nov.
K. testa minutd, levi, polita, candida, tenui, orbiculari, convex4, umbo-
nibus prominentibus.
Long. O7s. Lat. O07; unc. In the 8th Region of depth, everywhere.
Kellia transversa, sp. nov.
K. test tenuissima, levi, alba, pellucida, valdé ineequilaterali, transversé
oblonga, extremitatibus rotundatis.
Long. 03; une. Lat.02;. Crete (119 f.) (Capt. Graves and Lieut. Spratt ].
Morea.
Kellia ferruginosa, sp. nov.
K. testa orbiculari, subinzequilaterali, inflata, interné purpurea, externé fer-
ruginosa.
Long. 07;. With the last.
Genus AsTARTE, Sowerby.
Astarte pusilla, sp. nov.
A. testa minuta, triangulari, concentricé striata, margine interno denti-
culato.
Long. O7;. Naxos. (Mr. Hoskyn.)
Fam. Arcacee. Genus Nucuta, Lamarck.
Nucula egeensis, sp. nov.
N. testa ovata, subdepressa, levi, ineequilaterali, anticé rotundata, posticé
angulataé, marginibus internis levibus.
Long. O7;. Lat. O7;. Macri (180f.), Crete (119 f.).
Section Monomyaria.
Fam. Pectinide. Genus Pecten, Brugiere.
Pecten fenestratus, sp. nov.
P. testé. minuta (quivalvi), orbiculari, costis (5) longitudinalibus, striis
(10—15) transversis, interstitiis minutissimé longitudinaliter striatis ; auricu-
lis equalibus, magnis, longitudinaliter striatis.
Lat. 075. Region VIII. Cyclades, Asia Minor.
Pecten concentricus, sp. nov.
P. testé minutd (zquivalvi) orbiculari, concentricé striata; auriculis inew-
qualibus transversé radiato-costatis.
Lat. Ov. With the last.
Pecten hoskynsi, sp. nov.
P. testa minuté (zequivalvi), orbiculari, alba, pellucida, costis longitudinali-
bus distantibus squamosis, squamis vesiculosis.
Lat. O¥;. Reg. VIII. Asia Minor.
Genus Lima, Brug.
Lima (Limatula) elongata, sp. nov.
L. testa equilaterali pellucida, elongata, fragilissima, valdé tumida, clausa,
longitudinaliter costato-striata ; costis levibus, auriculis equalibus, umboni-
bus valdé prominentibus.
Long. O7:. Lat.Ors. Cyclades, Cerigo, Lycia. Reg. VIII.
Lima (Limatula) cuneata, sp. nov.
L. testa eequilaterali, ovata, candida, fragili, convexa, clausa, longitudina-
liter costata, costis crenulatis, interstitiis longitudinaliter striatis, striis levi-
bus; auriculis inzqualibus, umbonibus valdé prominentibus; margine fron-
tali arguté (12) dentato.
Long. 0¥;. Lat.02;,. Cyclades.
ON ZGEAN INVERTEBRATA. 193
Lima (Limatula) crassa, sp. nov.
L. testa eequilaterali, ovata, alba, crassa, subdepress4, clausa, longitudinaliter
costata, costis crenulatis, auriculis equalibus, umbonibus prominentibus.
Long. 02%. Lat. O7;. Everywhere in Reg. VIII.
Order BRACHIOPODA.
Fam. Terebratulide. Genus TEREBRATULA, Brug.
Terebratula appressa, sp. nov.
T. testa transversé ovata, planiuscula, fuscd, punctatdé, margine frontali
recto, foramine magno incompleto, sceleto é dissepimento simplicissimo den-
tiformi, erecto, versus foramen arcuato.
Lat. 03%; une. Lycia.
APPENDIX No. III.
In the tables of species of Mollusca, several, which are familiar to conti-
nental authors under other names, are there enumerated under the specific
appellations by which they had originally been described by Montagu and
other authors. In order to prevent mistakes I add a concordance of such
Mediterranean species as are now identified with described British forms, or
have received new names in consequence of their old ones having been pre-
occupied.
Doris coccinea, Forbes = Doris argo of many British authors.
Bulla truncata, Adams = B. semisulcata, Philippi.
Eulima subulata( Turbo, sp.), Donovan =Melania Cambessedesii, Payraudeau.
Eulima polita (Helix, sp.), Montagu = Rissoa boscii, Payraudeau. |
Parthenia elegantissima (Turbo, sp.), Montagu = Melania campanelle,
Philippi.
Rissoa ne (Turbo, sp.), Adams = Rissoa fulva, Michaud.
Rissoa reticulata (Turbo, sp.), Montagu = Fissoa reticulata, Philippi.
Rissoa conifera (Turbo, sp.), Montagu = Rissoa Brugieri, Payraudeau. ©
Rissoa striata (Turbo, sp.), Adams = Rissoa minutissima, Michaud.
Pleurotoma gracilis (Murex, sp.), Montagu = Pleurotoma suturale, Bronn.
Pleurotoma attenuata (Murex, sp.), Montagu = Pleurotoma gracile, Philippi.
Fusus muricatus (Murex, sp.), Montagu = Fusus echinatus, Philippi.
Ligula sicula (Amphidesma, sp.), Sowerby = Lutraria cottardi, Payraudeau.
Ligula boysii, Montagu = Erycina renieri, Bronn.
Kellia suborbicularis (Mya, sp.), Montagu = Bornia inflata, Philippi.
Lyonsia striata (Mya, sp.), Montagu = Pandorina coruscans, Philippi.
Lucina flexuosa (Venus, sp.), Montagu = Ptychina biplicata, Philippi.
Lucina spinifera (Venus, sp.), Montagu = Lucina hiatelloides, Basterot.
Venus ovata, Montagu = Venus radiata, Brocchi.
Venus fasciata, Montagu = Venus Brongniarti, Payraudeau.
Modiola marmorata, Forbes = Modiola discors of British authors.
Lima subauriculata, Montagu = Lima nivea, Risso.
P.S. Since the Report was read and the preceding papers laid before the
British Association at Cork, an additional and extensive set of researches
with the dredge in various parts of the Archipelago, including the shores of
Crete, have been forwarded to the reporter by Captain Graves, R.N., having
been obtained by that distinguished officer and the officers of Her Majesty’s
surveying vessel Beacon during 1843. It is no small satisfaction to be able
to state, that they fully confirm the inferences and observations embodied in
this Report. E. F.
1843. e
194
REPORT—1843.
Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of
the Geological Formations.
By M. AGassiz.
SILURIAN SYSTEM.
I. Piacoipes.
Ichthyodorulithes.
Onchus Murchisoni, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 6. t. 1.
f.1,2. Murch, Sil. Syst. p. 607. t. 4.
f.9-11. Ludlow.
Onchus tenuistriatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 7. t.1.
£.10. Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 607. t. 4. f. 57
-59, Ludlow.
Species of which the family has not yet been strictly decided,
Thelodus parvidens, 4g. in Murch. Sil, Syst.
p- 605. t. 4. fig. 34, 36. Ludlow.
Sclerodus pustuliferus, 4g. in Murch, Sil.
Syst. p. 605. t. 4. f. 27-32, 60-62. Lud-
low.
Plectrodus mirabilis, 4g. in Murch. Sil. Syst.
p. 605, t.4. f. 14-26. Ludlow.
Plectrodus pleiopristis, 4g. in Murch. Sil.
Syst. p. 606. Ludlow.
Sphagodus pristodontus, 4g. in Murch. Sil.
Syst. p. 605. t. 4. f.1-3, 6. Ludlow.
Pterygotus problematicus*, 4g. in Murch. Sil.
Syst. p. 605. t.4. f. 4,5. Ludlow.
DEVONIAN SYSTEM.
I. Piacoipss.
Ichthyodorulithes.
Onchus arcuatus, 4g, P. foss. iii. p. 7. t. 1.
f. 3-5. Murch. Sil. Syst. p, 598. t. 2.
f,10,11. Bromyard.
Onchus semistriatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 8. t. 1.
£.9. Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 598. t. 2. f. 12,
13. Southstone Rock.
Parexus recurvus, 4g. Msc. Balruddery.
Ctenacanthus ornatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 12.
t.2.f.1. Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 597. t. 2.
f.10. Wales. Sapey.
Ptychacanthus dubius, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.176.
Abergavenny.
Clematius reticulatus, 4g. Msc. Balruddery.
Cestraciontes.
Ctenoptychius priscus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.173. Ecosse.
II. Ganoipzs.
Lépidoides.
Dipterus macrolepidotus, Sedgw. § Murch.
Geol. Tr. t. 15. f. 1-3; t.16.f.2. dg. P.
foss. ii. p.115.t. 2.f.1,4;t.2a. Id. Rep.
1842. Bron. Leth. ii. p. 125. Murch.
Sil. Syst. p. 599. D. brachypygopterus,
S. & M. Geol. Tr. t.17. f.1-38. dg. l.c.
t. 2. f. 2, D. Valenciennesii, Geol. Tr.
t.16.f.1,3. 4g. lc. t. 2. f. 3. (Catopte-
rus analis, p. 23-27.) Caithness. How-
burn Head. PentlandFirth. Widel. Ban-
niskirk. Clythe. Liebster. Latheron
Wheele. Downton Hall.
Osteolepis arenatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 122.
t.2d.f.1-4. Id. Rep.1842. Esox, Pentl.
Geol. Tr. (n.s.)ii. p, 364. O. arenaceus,
Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 601. Gamrie,
Osteolepis macrolepidotus, Val. & Pentl. Geol.
Tr. iii. p.143. Ag. P. foss. ii. p.119. t. 20.
f.1-4; t.2¢.f.5,6. Id. Rep.1842. Mureh.
Sil. Syst. p.601, Caithness. Pomona.
Orkney. Cromarty.
Osteolepis microlepidotus, Val. § Pent. Geol,
Trans. iii. p. 143. 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 121.
t. 2c. f.14. Id. Rep. 1842. Murch. Sil.
Syst. p.601. Caithness. Pomona. Ork-
ney.
Osteolepis major, 4g. Rep. 1842, Lethen,
Gamrie,
Acanthodes pusillus, 4g. Rep. 1842. Gor-
don Castle.
Diplacanthus crassispinus, 4g. Rep. 1842.
Stromness. Orkney. Caithness.
Diplacanthus longispinus, dg. Rep. 1842.
Lethen Bar. Cromarty.
Diplacanthus striatulus, 4g. Rep. 1842. Le-
then Bar.
Diplacanthus striatus, 4g. Rep, 1842. Cro-
marty.
Cheiracanthus Murchisoni, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.
126, t.1e. f.3,4. Id, Rep. 1842. Gam-
rie.
Cheiracanthus minor, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 127.
* Lam lately persuaded that this fossil belongs to the class of the Crustaceans.
ee ee
FOSSIL FISHES.
t.1e.f.5. Id, Rep. 1842. Murch. Sil.
Syst. p. 601. Pomona. Stromness.
Cheiracanthus microlepidotus, 4g. Rep. 1842.
Lethen Bar. Cromarty.
Cheirolepis Traillii, 4g. P. foss. ii, p. 130. t.
Id; t.le.f.4. Jd. Rep.1842. Murch.
Sil. Syst. p. 601, Pomona. Strom-
ness.
Cheirolepis Uragus, 4g, P. foss. ii. p. 132.
t. le. f. 1-3. Jd, Rep. 1842. Pent.
Geol. Tr. (n.8,) ii. p, 364. no. 2. Gamrie.
Cheirolepis Cummingiz, 4g, Rep. 1842. Le-
then Bar. Cromarty.
Cephalaspis Lewisii, 4g, P. foss, ii, p. 149.
t.16.f.8. Jd. Rep.1842. Murch. Sil.
Syst. p. 593. t, 2, f.6. Whitbach.
Cephalaspis Lloydii, 4g. P. foss, ii. p. 150.
t. 1d. f. 9-11. Jd. Rep. 1842. Murch.
Sil. Syst. p. 594. t. 2, £. 7,9. Whitbach.
The Wyle. Sutton Hill, Downton Hall.
Menai Bridge. Abergavenny.
Cephalaspis Lyellii, 4g. P. foss. ii. p, 142.
t.1a. f.1-5; t.14.f.1-5. Jd, Rep.1842.
Murch, Sil, Syst, p. 589, t. 1. f.1, 2; t.2.
f. 1-3. Hereford. Brecknock. Whit-
bach. Kidderminster. Glammis.
Cephalaspis rostratus, 4g. P. foss. ii, p. 148.
195
t, 14. f.6, 7. Id. Rep. 1842. Murch.
Sil. Syst. p. 592. t. 2. f. 4, 5.. Whitbach.
Pterichthys cancriformis, dg. Rep. 1842.
Orkney.
Pterichthys cornutus, 4g. Rep. 1842. Le-
then Bar.
Pterichthys hydrophilus, 4g. Rep. 1842.
Dura Den.
Ricrighthye latus, dy. Rep, 1842. Lethen
ar.
Pterichthys Milleri, 4g. Rep. 1842. Gamrie.
Cromarty.
Pterichthys oblongus, 4g. Rep.1842. Gam-
rie, Cromarty,
Pterichthys productus, 4g. Rep. 1842. Le-
then Bar.
Pterichthys testudinarius, dy. Rep. 1842,
Cromarty.
Coccosteus cuspidatus, dg. Rep. 1842. Cro-
marty. Gamrie.
Coccosteus latus (v. decipiens), 4g. Rep.
. Sauroides,
Diplopterus affinis, 4g. Rep. 1842. Gam-
Tie.
Diplopterus borealis, 4g. Rep. 1842. Ork-
ney. Stromness.
Diplopterus macrocephalus, 4g. Rep. 1842.
Lethen Bar. (Printschka.)
Platygnathus paucidens, 4g. Rep. 1842.
Caithness.
Platygnathus Jamesoni,. dy. Rep. 1842.
Dura Den.
Platygnathus minor, 4g. Rep. 1842. Dura
Den.
Dendrodus latus, Ow. Ag. Rep. 1842. Mur-
rayshire.
1842. Caithness. Orkney.
Coccosteus oblongus, 4g. Rep. 1842. Le-
then Bar,
Chelonichthys Asmusii, 4g. Msc. Elgin.
(Riga).
Chdpuicisbes minor, 4g, Msc. Elgin, (Riga.)
Dendrodus strigatus, Ow. dg. Rep. 1842.
Murrayshire. (Riga.)
Dendrodus sigmoideus, Ow. Ag. Rep. 1842.
Murrayshire.
Lamnodus biporcatus, 4g. Dendrodus bi-
porcatus, Ow. dg. Rep. 1842. Murray-
shire. (Riga.)
Lamnodus Panderi, 4g.
pressus (s. hastatus), Ow
1842. Murrayshire. (Riga.)
Cricodus incurvus, 4g. Dendrodus incur-
vus, Ow. dg. Rep. 1842.. Murray-
shire. (Riga.)
Megalichthys priscus, 4g. Msc.
Dendrodus com-
Ag. Rep.
Orkney.
Oclacanthes.
Holoptychius giganteus, dg. Rep. 1842.
(Ccelacanthus s. Gyrolepis giganteus.)
Glammis. Gamrie. Clashbennie.
Holoptychius Flemingii, 4g. Rep. 1842.
Dura Den.
Holoptychius nobilissimus, 4g. Rep. 1842.
Mureh. Sil. Syst. p. 599. t. 2 dis. f. 1-4,
8,9? Clashbennie. (Printschka.)
Holoptychius Andersoni, 4g.Msc, Dura Den.
emi Murchisoni, 4g. Msc. Clash-
ennie.
Glyptosteus fayosus, 4g. Msc. Elgin. (Print.
schka.)
Glyptosteus reticulatus, 4g. Msc. Clashben-
nie. Elgin. (Printschka.)
Phyllolepis concentricus, 4g. Msc. Clash-
bennie.
Glyptolepis elegans, 4g. Rep. 1842. Gam-
rie.
Glyptolepis leptopterus, 4g. Rep. 1842. Le-
then Bar.
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM.
I, PLAcoipEs.
Ichthyodorulithes.
Onchus sulcatus, 4g. P, foss. iii. p. 8. t.1. f. 6.
Ichthyodorulithes Bristoliensis, Buch.
ae la B, (Mse.) Black Rock, Bris-
ol,
Onchus hamatus, 4g, P, foss, iii, p. 9. t. 1,
f, 7,8, Blackrock.
Onchus rectus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 177. Ar-
magh, - )
0 2
196
Onchus plicatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.177. Ar-
magh.
Onchus Faatain; Ag. P. foss. iii. p. 177. Ar-
magh.
Onchus subulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 177.
Rhuabon.
Ctenacanthus major, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 10.
t. 4. Bristol.
Ctenacanthus tenuistriatus, 4g. P. foss. ili.
p- 11. t. 3. f. 7-11. Bristol. Gorstley
Rough.
Ctenacanthus brevis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 11. t. 2.
f. 2. Ichthyodorulithes brevis, Buckl. &
De la B. (Mse.) Bristol. Armagh.
Ctenacanthus heterogyrus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p. 177. Armagh.
Ctenacanthus arcuatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.177.
Armagh.
Ctenacanthus crenulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.
177. Armagh.
Ptychacauthus sublevis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 23.
t.5. f. 1-3. Burdie House.
Sphenacanthus serrulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.
24. t.1.f.11-13. Burdie House.
Asteroptychius ornatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.176.
Armagh.
Asteroptychius Portlockii, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.
176. Ireland.
Physonemus subteres, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 176.
Armagh.
Gyracanthus formosus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 17.
t.5. f.4-8. Hibd. Tr. Ed. Roy. Soc. xiii.
Sow. Zool. Journ. ii. t.8. Burdie House.
Dudley. Newcastle. Rhuabon. Sun-
derland. Alnwick. Burnt Island.
REPORT—1843.
Gyracanthus tuberculatus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p- 19. t. la. f. 1-7. Sunderland.
Gyracanthus Alnvicensis, 4g. P. foss. ili.
p- 19. t. la. f.8. Ichthyodorulithes Aln-
vicensis, Buckl. § De la B. (Msc.) Aln-
wick Castle.
Gyracanthus ornatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 177.
North Wales.
Oracanthus Milleri, 49. P. foss. iii. p. 13. t. 3.
f.1-4. Ichthyodorulithes curvicostatus,
Buckl. § Dela B. (Msc.) Bristol.
Oracanthus minor, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 16. t. 3.
f.5,6. Bristol. Armagh.
Oracanthus pustulosus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 15.
t.2.f.3,4. Bristol.
Oracauthus confluens, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 177.
Armagh.
Lepracanthus Colei, Eyert.
p. 177. Rhuabon.
Leptacanthus priscus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 176.
Armagh.
Tristychius arcuatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 22.
t. la. f.9-11. Greenside near Glasgow.
Cladacanthus paradoxus, 4g. P. foss.iii. p.176.
Armagh.
Cricacanthus Jonesii, 4g. P. foss. iil. p. 176.
Armagh.
Orthacanthus cylindricus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p. 330. t.45. f.7-9. Leeds.
Pleuracanthus levissimus, 4g. P. foss. ili.
p. 66. t. 45. f.4,5. Dudley.
Pleuracanthus planus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 177.
Leeds.
Pleuracanthus cylindricus, Zyer¢. Msc. North
Wales.
Ay. P. foss. iii.
Cestraciontes.
Orodus cinctus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 96. t. 11.
f.1-4. Bristol.
Orodus ramosus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 97. t. 11.
f.5-9. Bristol.
Helodus simplex, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 104. t.19.
f.8-10. N. Stafford. Coalbrook Dale.
Helodus lvissimus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 104.
t. 14, f. 1-15. (Psammodus levissimus.)
Bristol.
Helodus subteres, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 105. t.12.
f. 3,4. (Psammodus subteres.) Bristol.
Helodus gibberulus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 106.
t. 12. f.1,2. (Psammodus gibberulus.)
Bristol.
Helodus turgidus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.106. t.15.
f. 1-12. (Psammodus turgidus.) Bris-
tol. Armagh.
Helodus mitratus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 173.
Carluke.
Helodus didymus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 173.
Armagh.
Helodus mammillaris, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 173.
Armagh.
Helodus planus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.173. Ar-
magh.
Chomatodus cinctus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 107.
t. 15. f. 13-21. (Psammodus cinctus.)
Bristol.
Chomatodus linearis, 4. P. foss. iii. p. 108.
t. 12. f. 5-13. (Psammodus linearis.)
Bristol.
Chomatodus truncatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.174.
Armagh.
Cochliodus contortus, Ag. P. foss. iii. p. 115.
t.19. f. 14; t. 14. £. 16-33. (Psammodus
contortus.) Bristol. Armagh. Clifton.
Cochliodus magnus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Cochliodus oblongus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Cochliodus acutus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Cochliodus striatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Psammodus rugosus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 111.
boub2opte 14-18; t.19.f.15. Con. & Ph.
Geol. vi. p. 356. Dens tritor rugosus,
Mill. Cat. Mus. Brist. Bristo]. Armagh.
Easky. (Hifel.)
Psammodus porosus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 112.
t.13. f.1-18. Bristol. Armagh.
Psammodus cornutus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Panning obtusus, 4g. Msc. Stafford.
Peecilodus Jonesii, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Peecilodus parallelus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
FOSSIL FISHES.
Peecilodus transversus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.174.
Armagh.
Peecilodus obliquus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh. Carluke.
Peecilodus sublevis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Peecilodus angustus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Carluke.
Pleurodus affinis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
; Rhuabon. Carluke.
Pleurodus Rankinei, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Carluke.
Ctenoptychius apicalis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 99.
t.19.f.1,1la. Stafford. Manchester.
Ctenoptychius pectinatus, dg. P. foss. iii. p.
100. t. 19. f. 2-4. Burdie House. Man-
chester.
Ctenoptychius denticulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p- 101. t.19. f. 5-7. Burdie House.
Manchester.
Ctenoptychius cuspidatus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p. 173. Glasgow.
Ctenoptychius dentatus, 4g. P. foss.iii. p.173.
Armagh.
Ctenoptychius serratus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 173.
Armagh.
Ctenoptychius macrodus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p. 173. Armagh. .
Cladodus mirabilis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 197.
t. 220. f.9-13. Bristol. Armagh.
Cladodus striatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 197.
t. 220. f.14-17. Armagh.
Cladodus marginatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 198.
t. 220. f.18-20, Armagh.
Cladodus Milleri, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.199. t.220.
f. 22,23. Bristol.
Cladodus conicus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.199. t.220.
f, 24. Bristol.
197
Ctenoptychius crenatus, 4g. P.foss.ii. p.173.
Carluke.
Ctenodus cristatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 137.
t.19.£.16. Tong near Leeds.
Ctenodus Robertsoni, .4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Burdie House.
Ctenodus alatus, Ag. P. foss. iii. p.174. Ard-
wick.
Ctenodus Murchisoni, 4g. Msc. Botwood.
Petalodus acuminatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Chematodus acuminatus, 4g. 1. c. p.108.
t. 19. f. 11-13. Durham. Yorkshire.
Glasgow.
Petalodus Hastingsie, Ow. dg. P. foss. ili.
p. 174. Armagh.
Petalodus psittacinus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Petalodus levissimus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Petalodus rectus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.174. Ar-
magh.
Petalodus radicans, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Petalodus marginalis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Petalodus sagittatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
Armagh.
Hybodontes.
Cladodus acutus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 199. t. 226.
f. 21. Laughgal.
Cladodus Hibberti, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 200.
t. 22d. f.25. Burdie House.
Cladodus parvus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 200. t. 225.
f. 26,27. Burdie House.
Diplodus gibbosus, 4g. P. foss. iil. p. 204.
t. 226. f. 1-5. Edinburgh. Carluke.
Derbyshire. North Stafford.
Diplodus minutus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 205.
t. 22. f.6-8. Burdie House.
Squalides.
Carcharopsis prototypus, dy. P. foss. iii. p. 313. Yorkshire. Armagh,
II. GANOIDES.
Lépidoides.
Acanthodes sulcatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 125.
t. le. f.1,2. New Haven.
Amblypterus nemopterus, 4. P. foss.ii.p.107.
t.4b.£.1,2. Wardie. New Haven. Inch-
keith.
Amblypterus punctatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 109.
t. 4e. f.3-8. New Haven.
Amblypterus striatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 111.
t. 4b. f. 3-6. Rep. of Brit. Assoc. for
1834, p. 76. New Haven.
Palxoniscus carinatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 104.
t.4c.f.1,2. Rep. of Brit. Assoc. for 1834,
p. 76. New Haven.
PaleoniscusEgertoni, 4g.Msc. Staffordshire.
Paloniscus Monensis, Eyert.Msc. Anglesea.
Paleoniscus ornatissimus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.92.
t. 10a. f. 5-8. Burnt Island. Burdie
House.
Paleoniscus Robisoni, Hidd. Tr. Edinb. Roy.
Soc. xiii. t. 6. f.7;+.7.£.3. Ag. P. foss.
ii. p. 88. t. 10a. f.1,2. Burdie House.
Paleoniscus striolatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 91.
t.10a. £.3,4. Hibb. Tr. Edinb. Roy. Soe.
xiii. t. 6. f. 6; t. 7. £1. Burdie House.
Eurynotus crenatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 154.
t. 14a, 14. Burdie House.
Eurynotus fimbriatus, 4g. P. foss. ii, p. 197.
t. 14e. f. 1-3. New Haven.
Platysomus parvulus, 4g. Mse. Leeds.
Plectrolepis rugosus, 4g. Msc. Carluke.
Sauroides.
Megalichthys Hibberti, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 87.
t. 63,64. Bron, Leth. ii, p. 129. t. 10.
f.8. Burdie House. Newcastle. North
Stafford. Leeds. Glasgow. Carluke.
ia.
198
~Megalichthys maxillaris, 4g. Mse. Leeds.
- Diplopterus carbonarius, 4g. Mse.
Leeds.
Diplopterus Robertsoni, 4g. Msc. Burdie
House.
Pygopterus Bucklandi, 4g. P. foss. ii. part 2.
p- 77. Burdie House.
Pygopterus Jamesoni, 4g. P. foss. ii. part 2.
p. 78. Burdie House.
REPORT—1843.
Pygopterus Greenockii, 4g. P. foss. ii. part 2.
p. 78. New Haven.
Acrolepis acutirostris, 4g. Msc. Carluke.
Orognathus conidens, 4g. Msc. Carluke.
Graptolepis ornatus, 4g. Mse. Carluke.
Pododus capitatus, 4g. Msc. Carluke.
Celacanthes.
Wamaganis Phillipsii, 4g. P. foss. ii. Hali-
ne lepturus,.4g.Msc. Leeds. Man-
chester.
Holoptychius Hibberti, 4g. P. foss. ii. (Rhi-
zodus, Ow.) Burdie House.
Holoptychius sauroides, 4g. Msc.
burgh. Leeds.
Holoptychius faleatus, 4g. Msc.
near Glasgow.
Holoptychius Portlockii, 4g. Msc.
land.
Edin-
Greenside
Tre-
Holoptychius Garneri, Murch. Sil. Syst. p.
474. Lanesfield.
Holoptychius granulatus, 4g. Msc. Rhua-
bon. North Stafford.
Holoptychius striatus, 4g. Msc. (Megalich-
thys.) (Millst. Gr.) Edinburgh.
Holoptychius minor, 4g. Msc. Leeds. North
Stafford.
Hoplopygus Binneyi, 4g. Msc.
Uronemus lobatus, 4g. Mse.
Phyllolepis tenuissimus, 4g. Msc.
House.
Manchester.
Burdie House.
Burdie
PERMIAN SYSTEM.
I, PLAcoipEs.
Ichthyodorulithes.
Gyropristis obliquus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.177. (C. magn.) Belfast.
II. GANoiDES.
Lépidoides.
Palzoniscus comtus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 97.
t. 100. f.1-3. Palzothrissum magnum,
Geol. Tr. (S. 2.) iii. t. 8. £1, 2. Pale-
othr. macrocephalum, Ibid. t. 9. f. 2.
(C. magn.) East Thickley. Midderidge.
Darlington. Clar. Railw. West Bolden.
Houghton. Whitley. Rushyford.
Palzoniscus elegans, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 82, 95.
t. 104. f. 4,5. Sedgw. Geol. Trans. (S. 2.)
iii. t.9.f.1. (Paleothrissum.) (C.magn.)
East Thickley. Midderidge. Darling-
ton, &c.
Paleoniscus glaphyrus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 98.
t.10c. f.1, 2. (C. magn.) Midderidge.
East Thickley. Darlington. Clar. Rail-
way. West Bolden. Houghton. Whit-
ley and Rushyford. Ferry Hill.
Paleoniscus longissimus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.100.
t.10e. f. 4. (C. magn.) East Thickley.
Midderidge. Darlington. Clar. Rail-
way. West Bolden. Houghton, &c.
Paloniscus macrophthalmus, dg. P. foss. ii.
p. 99. t.10c. f. 3. (C. magn.) East Thick-
ley. Midderidge. Darlington. Clar.
Railway. West Bolden. &c.
Platysomus macrurus, 4g. P. foss. ii, p. 170.
t.18. f.1,2. Sedgw. Geol. Tr. (S. 2.) iii.
t.12. f.1,2. Uropteryx undulatus, 4g.
Msc. Walch.Geol. p.270. East Thickley.
Platysomus parvus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.170. t.18.
f. 3. Clanny, Aun. of Phil. vi. p. 115
(Chztodon). Winch. Geol. Tr. iv. t. 2.
(C. magn.) Low Pallion, Northumb.
Platysomus striatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 168.
t.17.£.1—-4. Uropteryx striatus, 4g. Msc.
Walchn. Geol. p. 720. Sedgw. Geol. Tr.
(S. 2.) iii. t.12. £.3,4. (C. magn.) Ferry
Hill. Whitley. Durham.
Sauroides.
Acrolepis Sedgwickii, dg. P. foss. ii. p. 11.
t.52. Geol. Tr. (S.2.)iii. t.8.£.3. Bron.
Leth. ii. p. 120. t. 10. f. 6. (C. magn.)
East Thickley. Ferry Hill.
Pygopterus mandibularis, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.10.
t. 53, 53a. Geol. Tr. (S. 2.) iii. t. 10.
f.1-3. Nemopteryx mandibularis, s. Sau-
ropsis scoticus, 4g. (Anc. Cat.) P. sco-
ticus, dg. Bron. Leth. ii. p. 128. (C.
magn.) East Thickley. Ferry Hill.
Pygopterus sculptus, 4g. P. foss. ii, part 2.
p-77. (C. magn.)
Celacanthes.
Ccelacanthus granulatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t.62. (C.magn.) Durham. Ferry Hill. East Thick-
ley.
FOSSIL FISHES.
199
TRIASIC SYSTEM.
I. PLAcoiDEs.
Ichthyodorulithes.
Hybodus minor, Ay. P. foss. ili. p. 48. t. 8b.
f. 2, 3. (p.183. t. 23. £ 21-24.) (Boneb.)
Bristol. Avstcliff. Westbury. Pyrton-
on-Severn.
Nemacanthus filifer, 4g. P: foss. iii. p. 26.
t. 7. £9. (Boneb.) Bristol. Austcliff.
Westbury.
Leiacanthus (spec. ined.), 4g. Mse. (Boneb.)
Nemacanthus monilifer, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 26. Austcliff.
t.7.£.10-15. (Boneb.) Bristol. Westbury.
Cestraciontes.
Acrodus minimus, Ag. P. foss. iii. p. 145. t. 22.
f. 6-12. (Boneb.) Austcliff. Lyme Re-
gis. Axmouth.
Ceratodus latissimus, Ag. P. foss. iii. p. 131.
t. 20. £.8,9. (Boneb.) Austcliff:
Ceratodus curvus, 47: P: foss: iii. p.131. t. 20:
£10. (Boneb.) Austcliff.
Ceratodus planus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 132. t. 20.
f.6,7. (Boneb.) Austcliff.
Ceratodus parvus, Ag. P. foss. iii. p. 132: t. 20.
f.1. (Boneb.) Austcliff.
Ceratodus emarginatus. Ag. P. foss. iii: p. 133.
t, 20. £.11-13. (Boneb.) Austcliff.
Ceratodus gibbus, 4g: P. foss. ili. p.133. t. 20.
£,14,15,; (Boneb.) Austeliff.
Céeratodus dedaleus, Ag. P. foss. iii. p. 133.
t. 20. £16. (Boneb.) Austeliff.
Ceratodus altus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 134. t.18.
£1, 2; t. 20. f2+5. (Boneb.) Aust-
cliff.
Cératodus obtusus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 134.
+. 19. £20, 21. (Boneb.) Austcliff.
Ceratodus disauris, 4g. P. foss. iii, p. 135.
t:19. £19. (C. bicornis, Fewil. p. 112.)
(Boneb.) Austcliff.
Hybodontes.
Hybodus minor, 4g. P. foss. iii: (p. 48. t. 80.
£, 2,3.) i 183. t. 23, £. 21-24. (Boneb.)
Bristol. Austeliff. Westbury. Pyrtom-
on-Severn.
II. GANOIDES.
Lépidoides.
Gyrolepis Alberti, Ag. P. foss. ii. p.173. t. 19.
Bron. Leth. ii. p. 195. t.13. £8. (Gr.
big.) Wickwart near Bristol. (Boneb.)
Axmouth. (Mschk.Friderichshall. Rott-
weil. Baireuth. Rietheim. Biberfeld.
Rottenmiiinster.
Meurthe:)
Gyrolepis maximus, dg. P. foss. ii. p. 175.
t.19. (Gr. big.) Wickwatr. (Mschk.
Friderichshall. Rottenmiinster. Bi-
Breslau. Vosges.
berfeld. Breslau. Luné-
ville.)
Gytolepis tenuistriatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. ps
174. t.19. Alb. Monogr. p: 120. (Gr.
big:) Wickwarr. (Boneb-) Axiiouth.
(Mschk. Rottweil. Biberfeld. Rietheim.
Tubingué. Baireuth. Breslau. Luné-
ville.
Paleoniscus catopterus, Ag. P. foss. ii, (Ns
Red.) Roan hill.
Bairetith.
Sauroides.
Saurichthys apicalis, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 12.
Miinsé. Beitr. i. p. 116. t. 14. £1, 2.
Bron. Leth. ii. p. 185. (Borieb.) Ax-
mouth. (Mschk. Baireuth: Laineck.
Benk. Gottingen. Hildesheim. Jena.)
Saurichthys acuminatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. (S.
conicus olim.) (Boneb.) Austcliff.
Saurichthys longidens, Ag. P. foss. ii. (Bo-
neb.) Austcliff. Pyrton-on-Severns
OOLITIC SYSTEM.
J. PLacoibDEs.
Iehthyodorulithes.
Leptacanthus tenuispinus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.
27. t. la. £12, 13, (Lias.) Lyme Re-
gis.
Leptacanthus semistriatus, 4g. P. foss. ii.
p- 28. t. 7. £.3-8. _Ichthyodorulithes
Stonesfieldensis, Buck. & De la B. (Gr.
ool.) Stonesfield.
Leptacanthus serratus, 4y. P. foss. iii. p. 29.
t.7.£1,2. (?G@r. ool.) ?Stonesfield.
Nemacanthus brevispinus, 4g: Mse. (Gr.
ool.) Stonesfield.
Myriacanthus paradoxus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.
38. t.6. Geol. Tr. (2nd series) i. p. 65.
f.1,2. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Myriacanthus retrorsus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 39.
t. 8a. £.14,15. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Myriacanthus granulatus, 4g. P. foss. ili. p.
40. t. 8a. £16, (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
200
Asteracanthus Stutchburyi, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p-177. (Lias.) Charmouth.
Asteracanthus acutus, 4. P. foss. iii. p. 23.
t. 8a. f. 1-3. (Up. Cornbr.) Castle Miles.
Asteracanthus minor, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 33.
t. 8a. f. 4-6. (Ool.)
Asteracanthus semisulcatus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p. 34. t. 8a. f. 7-10. Ichthyodorulithes
Purbecensis, B.§ Dela B. (Qol.) Stones-
field. (Purb.) Swanwick.
Asteracanthus ornatissimus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p-31.t.8. Ichthyodorulithes Hedding-
tonensis, B. & Dela B. A. ornatissimus,
Bron. Leth. ii. t. 8. Gressly in Leonh. u.
Br. N. Jahrb. 1836. p. 663. Fitt. Geol.
Trans. iv. p. 367. (Kimm.) Shotover.
Heddington. (Portl. Soleure.)
Hybodus crassispinus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 48.
t.8b.f.7. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Hybodus reticulatus, 4g. P. foss. iti. p. 50.
t. 9. f.1-9. (H. incurvus et curtus, 49.)
Con. & Ph. Geol. vi. p. 267. Geol. Tr.
(2nd series) i. t. 4. f. 7-10; t. 5. f. 3, 4.
Ichthyodorulithes Dorsetiensis, B. § De
la B. Buckl. Geol. Miner. t. 27d. f. ec.
1-4, Geol. Trans. (n.s.) iii. t.9. (Lias.)
Lyme Regis. Neston. Keynsham. (Wiir-
temberg.)
Hybodus formosus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 51. t. 9.
f.10,11. (H. speciosus, ornatus, gros-
sispinus.) (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
REPORT—1843.
Hybodus ensatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 51. t. 9.
f.12. (H. crassus olim.) (Lias.) Lyme
Regis.
Hybodus marginalis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 43.
t.10. f. 18-21. (Ool.) Stonesfield. Til-
gate. (Lias.) Keynsham.
Hybodus crassus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 47. t. 10.
f.23. (Ool. inf.) Rodmore Pits. (Ool.
ferr. Wasseralfingen.)
Hybodus apicalis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 43. t. 10.
f.22; p.195. t.23.£.16,20. (Ool.) Stones-
field. Tilgate. (Lias.)Lyme Regis. (Keup.
Hildesheim).
Hybodus dorsalis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 42. t. 10.
f. 1. (Ool.) Stonesfield. Tilgate. ? Bath.
Hastings.
Hybodus leptodus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.44. t.10.
f.2,3. (?Ool.) ? Shotover Hill.
Hybodus striatulus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.44. t. 80.
f.l,la. Mant. Tilg. t.10.f.4,6. (Weald.)
Hastings.
Hybodus acutus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 45. t. 10.
f.4-6. (Kimm.) Shotover.
Hybodus strictus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 45. t. 10.
f. 7-9. Portland. Purbeck.
Hybodus subcarinatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 46.
t.10. f.10-12. Geol. Tr. (n.s.) ii. t. 6.
(Weald.) Tilgate.
Pristacanthus Securis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 35.
t.8a.f.11-13. (Ool.) Stonesfield. (Caen.)
Cestraciontes.
Acrodus nobilis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 140. t. 21.
Con. & Ph. Geol. i. p.267. Geol. Tr. (n.s.)
i. t.4.£,6. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Acrodus latus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 144. (Lias.)
Lyme Regis.
Acrodus gibberulus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 144.
t.22.f.1,3. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Acrodus undulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p, 144.
(Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Acrodus Anningie, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 174.
t. 22. f.4. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Acrodus leiopleurus, 4g. P. foss. ili. p. 145.
t. 22. f.5. (Ool.) Bath. ? Stonesfield.
Acrodus Hirudo, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 148. t. 22.
f.27. (Weald.) Tilgate.
Acrodus leiodus, Egert. Msc.
field.
Ceratodus Phillipsii, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 135.
t.19.f.17. (Ool.) Stonesfield.
(Ool.) Stones-
Strophodus magnus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 126.
t.18.f.11-15. (Psammodus magnus, 49.
Msc.). Luid. t. 16. f. 1448, 1445, 1442,
C. Prév. Ann. Sc. nat. iv. Nos. 10-14.
(Gr. ool.) Stonesfield. Dundry. (C. jur.
Ranville.)
Strophodus tenuis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 127.
t. 18. f. 16-25. (Gr. ool.) Stonesfield.
Dundry.
Strophodus radiato-punctatus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p- 128. t.18. f.27. (Kellow. R.)
Strophodus favosus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 175.
(Gr. ool.) Stonesfield.
Strophodus reticulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.123.
t.17. (Psammodus reticulatus.) (Kimm.)
Shotover.
Strophodus subreticulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p- 125. t. 18. £.5-10. (Ool. inf.) Dun-
dry. (C. a Tort. Soleure.)
Hybodontes.
Hybodus reticulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 180.
t. 24, f. 26; t. 22a. f. 22, 23. (lias.)
Lyme Regis. Neston. Keynsham.
Hybodus pyramidalis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 182.
t. 22a. f. 20, 21. (H. pachyprion et John-
soni, 4g. Msc.) (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Hybodus medius, 49. P. foss. iii. p.184. t. 24.
f. 25. (H. homoprion, 4g. Msc.) (Lias.)
Lyme Regis.
Ilybodus grossiconus, dy. P. foss. iii. p. 184.
t. 23. f. 25-41. (Gr. ool.) Stonesfield.
(Weald.) Tilgate. (Ool. Caen.)
Hybodus polyprion, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 185.
t.23.f.1-15. (Ool.) Stonesfield ?Dun-
dry. (Caen.)
Hybodus obtusus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 186. t. 23.
f.43,44, (Ool.) Malton? (Caen.)
Hybodus raricostatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 187.
t. 24. f.24. (Ool.) Stonesfield? (Lias.)
Bristol.
Hybodus dubius, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 188. t. 22a.
f.8-10. (Purb.) Linksfield.
Hybodus undulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 188.
t, 22a, f.11. (Purb.) Linksfield.
FOSSIL FISHES.
Hybodus carinatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 52. t. 9.
£.13,14. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Sphenonchus hamatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 202,
t. 22a. f. 12-14. (Onchus et Leiosphen
olim). Buckl. Min. Geol. t. 27d. f. 6, 7.
(Lias.) Lyme Regis.
201
Sphenonchus elongatus, 49. P. foss. iii. p. 202.
t, 22a. f. 18,19. (Weald.) Tilgate Forest.
Sphenonchus Martini, Rod. Ag. P. foss. iii.
p- 203. t. 22a. £.15-17. (Portl.) Links-
field.
Squalides.
Thyellina prisca, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 378. t. 39.
f.1,2. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Oxyrhina (Meristodon) paradoxa, 4g. P. foss.
ili. p. 286. t. 36. f. 53-56. (Ool.) Tilgate.
Raies.
Arthropterus Rileyi, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 379.
(Lias.) Bristol.
Cyclarthrus macropterus, 4g. P.foss. iii. p.382.
t.44. f.1. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Squaloraja polyspondyla, 49. P.foss.iii.p.381.
t.42,43. Squaloraja dolichognatha, Ri-
ley, Proc. Geol. Soc. 1833. Lond. and
Edinb. Phil. Journ. iii. p. 369. Spinaco-
rhinus polyspondylus, 4g.T. cit. et Feuill.
p.94. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Chimérides.
Chimeera (Ischyodon) emarginata, Eyert. Ag.
P. foss. iii. p. 345. (Ool.) Stonesfield.
Chimera (Ischyodon) Egertoni, Buch. Proc.
Geol. Soc. ii. p. 206. dg. P. foss. iii. p.
340. t. 40e. f.1-10. (Kimm.) Shotover.
Chimera (Ischyodon) Townsendii, Bucki.
Proc. Geol. Soc. ii. p. 206. 4g. P. foss.
iii. p. 343. t. 40. £. 20-22; t. 40c. £.17,
18. (Portl.) Great Milton.
Chimera (Ischyodon) Johnsonii, 4g. P. foss.
ii. p. 344. t. 40c. f. 22. (Lias.) Char-
mouth.
Chimera (Ganodus) Colei, Buckl. dg. P.
foss. iii. p. 346. t. 40. f. 8-10. (Ool.)
Stonesfield.
Chimera (Ganodus) Owenii, Buckl. Ag. P.
foss. iii. p. 347. t. 40. f. 6, 7.
Stonesfield.
Chimera (Ganodus) rugulosa, Egert. Msc.
Ag. P. foss. ili. p. 347. (Ool.) Stones-
field.
Chimera (Ganodus) neglecta, Egert. Msc.
Ag. P. foss. iii. p. 347. t. 40c. £.11. (Ool.)
Stonesfield.
Chimera (Ganodus) curvidens, Egert.
P. foss. iii. p. 348.
Chimera (Psittacodon) falcata, Eyert. Msc.
(Ool.)
Ag.
Ag. P. foss. iii. p. 349. t. 40. £13. (Ool.) |
Stonesfield.
Chimera (Psittacodon) psittacina, Eyert.Msc.
4g. P. foss. iii. p. 350. t. 40c. £12. (Ool.)
Stonesfield.
II. GAnoipEs.
Lépidoides.
Dapedius arenatus, 4g. Msc. (Lias.) Lyme
Regis.
Dapedius Colei, .4g. P. foss. ii. p.195. t. 250.
f. 1-7. t. 25c. Dapedium politum, Cole
(non De la B.) (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Dapedius granulatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 190.
t. 25. f. 2-5, 6a, &. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Dapedius micans, 4g. Msc. (Lias.) Whitby.
Dapedius Orbis, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 218. t. 25d.
(Lias.) Barrow. Whitby.
Dapedius politus (Leach), De la B. Geol. Tr.
(2nd ser.) i. t.6. f. 1-4. dg. P. foss. ii.
p. 185. t. 25. f. 1, 6c. Kriig. Naturg. i.
p- 219. Holl. Petref. p.113. Woodw.
p. 37. Goldf. ap. Dech. p.419. Bron.
Leth. ii. p. 484. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Dapedius punctatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 192.
t. 25a; t. 25. f. 6d, 7, 8,9. (Lias.) Lyme
Regis.
Tetragonolepis angulifer, 4g.P.foss. ii. p. 213.
t. 23. (T. Traillii, pp. 7,214.) (Lias.)
Stratford on Avon.
Tetragonolepis confluens, 4g. P.foss.ii. p.199.
t. 23a. f.1. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Tetragonolepis dorsalis, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 211.
t.21.f.1,2; t.2la.f.1. (Lias.) Byrford.
Tetragonolepis heterodeyma, 4g, P. foss. ii.
p- 206. t. 23e. £1.
(Boll.)
Tetragonolepis Leachii, 49. P. foss. ii. p. 203.
t. 23d, bis. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Tetragonolepis leiosomus, 4g. P.foss.ii.p. 202.
t, 23a. f.3. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Tetragonolepis mastodontus, dg. P. foss. ii.
p- 216. t. 23e. f. 3-5. Geol. Tr. (2nd se-
ries) ii. t.6. (Weald.) Hastings.
Tetragonolepis monilifer, 4g. P.foss. ii. p.212.
t. 21a. f. 2-5. (Lias.) Banwell. Barrow.
Tetragonolepis ovalis, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 209.
t. 21. £3. (Lias.) Whitby. (Boll.)
Tetragonolepis pholidotus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.
207. t. 23e. f. 2. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
(Boll.)
Tetragonolepis pustulatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.
201. t. 23¢c. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Tetragonolepis radiatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 201.
t. 23a. #2. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Tetragonolepis speciosus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.199.
t. 230. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Tetragonolepis striolatus, 4g. Msc.
Barrow.
Centrolepis asper, Eyert. Msc. (Lias.) Lyme
Regis. ;
Amblyurus macrostomus, 49. P. foss. ii. p. 220.
(Lias.) Lyme Regis.
(Lias.)
202
t.25e. Bron. Leth. ii. p, 284.
Lyme Regis. Street.
Semionotus rhombifer, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 228.
t. 26a. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Lepidotus fimbriatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 247.
t. 336. (Dapedius fimbriatus, 4g. Feuill.
p- 9.) (Lias.) Lyme Regis. (C. jur. Ty-
rol. ? Keup. Coburg.)
Lepidotus Fittoni, dy. P. foss. ii. p. 265. t. 30.
£.4-6 (non Mant.); t. 30a, 304. (Weald.)
Tilgate.
Lepidotus Gigas, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 235. t. 28,
29. Waichn. p. 628. Goldf. ap. Dech.
p.419. Bron. Leth. ii. p. 486. Cyprinus
Elvensis, DeBl. Ichth. p.90. Krug. Natg.
p. 214. Holl, p.123. (Lias.) Northamp-
ton. (Boll. Elve. Mistelbach. Schwarz-
bach. Banz. Altdorf.)
Lepidotus latimanus, Evert. Msc. (Oxf. cl.)
Chippenham.
Lepidotus Mantellii, 49. P. foss. ii. p. 262. t.30.
£.10-15; t.30a. £.4-6; t.300. £.2; t.30¢. f.
1-7. Mant.Tilg.t.5.f.3,4,15,16. Park.
Org. Rem. iii.t.18.£.19. (Weald.) Tilgate.
Lepidotus minor, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 260. t. 34.
(Ool.) Stonesfield. Purb. Portl. (Hil-
desheim.)
Lepidotus rugosus, 49. P.foss. ii. p.246.t. 33a.
f.1-8. (Lias.) Lyme Regis. Whitby.
Lepidotus semiserratus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 240.
t.29a,29b. Young, Geol. York.t.16.f.7,8.
(L. latissimus et umbonatus, 4g. l.c. p.8.
? Palwoniscus, 4g. 1. c. p. 82.) (Lias.)
Whitby. Scarborough. Lottus, &c.
Lepidotus serrulatus, 4g. Msc. (Lias.) Barrow,
Lepidotus subdenticulatus, 49. P. foss. ii. p.9.
t. 30. f.4-6. L. Fittoni, Mant. (Hast.
s.) Hastings.
Lepidotus tuberculatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 256.
t. 29¢.f.7. (Gr. ool.) Stonesfield.
(Lias.)
REPORT—1843.
Lepidotus undatus, 49. P. foss. ii. p. 245, t.33,
(Lias.) Lyme Regis. (Jur. ?Caen.)
Lepidotus unguiculatus, Ag. P. foss, ii. p. 251.
t. 30. f. 7-9; t. 29c. f. 1. Lepidosaurus,
H.v. Mey. Paleol. p. 208. Rupp. Ab-
bild. u. Beschr. p. 11. t.4, (L. maximus,
Ag.) (Gr. ool.) Stonesfield. (Jur. So-
lenhofen. Daitingen.)
Pholidophorus Bechei, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 272.
t.39.f.1-4. Geol. Tr. (2nd ser.) i. t. 7.
f.1. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Pholidophorus Flesheri, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 281.
t.37.£.8. (Inf. ool.) Northampton.
Pholidophorus Hastingsize,4g.P. foss. ii. p.284.
t. 42a. f.1. (Lias.) Barrow.
Pholidophorus latiusculus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.9,
287. (Lias.) Lyme Regis. (Seefeld.)
Pholidophorus leptocephalus, 4g. P. foss. ii.
p. 288. (Lias.) Street.
Pholidophorus limbatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 9,
282. t. 37. f.1-5. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Pholidophorus minor, 49, P. foss. ii. p. 286.
t. 42a. f.5. (Gr. ool.) Stonesfield.
Pholidophorus onychius, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.274.
t. 39. f.5=7. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Pholidophorus ornatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 280.
t. 37. £.6,7. (Ool.) Purbeck.
Pholidophorus Stricklandi, Ag. P. foss. ii. p.
284. t.42a.f.3,4. (Lias.) Barrow.
Pholidophorus pachysomus, Eyert. Msc. 4g.
P. foss. ii. p. 288. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Pholidophorus crénulatus, Eyeré. Msc. Ag.
P. foss. ii. p. 288. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Nothosomus octostychius, 4g. Msc. P. foss.
ii. p. 294. (Lias.) Street.
Ophiopsis dorsalis, 49. P. foss. ii. p. 291. t. 36.
f. 5. (Ool. inf.) Northampton?
Ophiopsis penicillatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 290. .
t. 36. f. 2-4. (Ool.) Purbeck.
Sauroides.
Eugnathus Chirotes, dg. P. foss. ii. t. 570.
(Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Eugnathus fasciculatus, dg. Msc. (Lias.)
Whitby.
Eugnathus leptodus, dy. Mse. (Lias.) Lyme
Regis.
Eugnathus mandibularis, 4g. Msc. (Lias.)
Lyme Regis.
Eugnathus minor, Ag. P. foss. ii. t. 58a. f. 1.
(Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Eugnathus opercularis, 4g: Msc. (Lias.) Lyme
Regis.
Eugnathus ornatus, 4g. Msc. (Lias.) Lyme
Regis.
Eugnathus orthostomus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t.57a.
(Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Eugnathus Philpotie, dy. P. foss. ii. t. 58.
(Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Eugnathus polyodon, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 58a.
f.2. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Eugnathus scabriusculus, 4g. Msc. (Lias.)
Lyme Regis. :
Eugnathus speciosus, dg. P. foss. ii, t. 56.
f.1-6. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Eugnathus tenuidens, 4g. P. foss. iis (Lias.)
Street.
Ptycholepis Bollensis, 4. P. foss.ii. p.11.t.D.
f.2. Bron. Leth. ii. p. 488. t. 24, f. 8.
(Lias.) Lyme Regis. Whitby. (Boll.)
Conodus ferox, 4g.Msc. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Pachycormus acutirostris, 4g. Mse. (Lias.)
Whitby.
Pachycormus cuttus, dy. P. foss. ii. t. 59.
(Lias.) Whitby.
Pachycormus gracilis, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 12.
(Ureeus gracilis; 4g.Cat.) (Lias.) Whitby.
(Wiirtemberg.)
Pachycormus heterurus, 4g. P: foss. ii. t. 58a.
f.4. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
Pachycormus latipennis, 4g. Msc. (Lias.)
Lyme Regis.
Pachycormus latirostris, 4g. Msc. (Lias.)
Whitby.
Pachycormus latus, 4g. Msc. (Lias.) Whitby.
Pachycormus leptosteus, 4g. Msc. (Lias.)
Lyme Regis.
Pachycormus macrurus, 49. P. foss. ii. t. 58a.
£3. (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
FOSSIL FISHES.
Caturus Bucklandi, 4g. Mse. (Lias.) Lyme
Regis.
Caturus pleiodus, 4g. Msc. (Ool.) Stones-
field.
Caturus angustus, 4g. Msc. (Pachycormus
angustus olim.) (Portl.) Garsington.
Thrissonotus Colei, 4g. Msc. (Lias.) Lyme
Regis.
vw Asilrdeeiue gracilis, 4g. Msc. (Qol.)North-
ampton.
Sauropsis latus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 11. (Lias.)
? Lyme Regis. (Wiirtemb. Baden.)
Sauropsis mordax, 4g. Msc. (Gr.ool.) Stones-
eld
field.
Leptolepis Bronnii, 4g. P. foss. i. p.13. Cy-
203
Leptolepis caudalis, 4g: Msc. (Lias.) Lyme
Regis.
Leptolepis filipennis, 4g. Msc. (Lias.) Street:
Leptolepis macrophthalmus, Egert. (Oxf.cl.)
Chippenham. .
Saurostomus (sp. ined.), 4g. Mse: (Lias.)
Lincolnshire.
Aspidorhynchus anglicus, 4g. Msc. (Lias.)
Whitb
thy.
Aspidorhynchus euodus, Eyert. Msc. (Oxf.
cl.) Chippenham.
Belonostomus acutus,4g.Msc. (Lias.) Whitby.
Belonostomus leptosteus, 4g. Msc. (Ool.)
Stonesfield.
Belonostomus tenellus, 4g. Mse. (B. Annin-
ete coryphenoides, Bron. (Lias.) giz olim.) (Lias.) Lyme Regis.
yme Regis. (Neidingin. Baireuth. Macrosemius brevirostris, 4g. Msc. (Qol.)
Caen, &c.) Stonesfield.
Ceelacanthes.
Ctenolepis Cyclus, 4g. Msc. (Ool.) Stones- Gyrosteus mirabilis, 4g.Msc. (Lias.) Whitby.
field. Lyme Regis.
Pycnodontes.
Gyrodus Mantellii, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 60a. f.18.
(Ool.) Tilgate.
Gyrodus Cuvieri, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 16. t. 60a.
f. 21-23. (Ool.) Sandfort. (Jur. m.
Boulogne.)
Gyrodus radiatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 60a. f. 20.
(Ool.) Purbeck. Stonesfield. (Caen.)
Gyrodus trigonus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 60a. f. 15.
(Ool.) Stonestfield.
Gyrodus umbilicus, 4¢. P. foss. ii. p.16. t.60a.
f. 27,28. Bron. Leth. ii. p. 493. t. 25.
f.11. (Ool.) Stonesfield. (Diirrheim.)
Gyrodus punctatus, 4g. P. foss. il. t. 69a. f. 24.
(Ool.) Malton.
Spherodus Gigas, 4g. P. foss. ii. p.15. Merc.
De Buf. p. 184. Barr. t. 2. n.9. Briick.
Ep. 64. t. 1. no. 6,7. ?Park. Org. Rem.
iii. t.19. £6. (Ool.) Stonesfield. (Kim.)
Shotover. (Jur. sup. Suisse.)
Spherodus microdon, 4g. Msc. (Lias.) Lyme
Reoi
egis.
oe minor, 4g. Msc. (Ool.) Stones-
it
field.
Gyronchus oblongus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 60a.
f. 10, 11. (Scaphodus olim.) (Ool.)
Stonesfield.
Microdon radiatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t.59e. f.1,2.
_ (Ool.) Stonesfield. Purbeck.
Microdon ttigonus, 4g. Msc: (Pychodus.)
(Ool.) Stonesfield.
Periodus marginalis, 4y.Msc. (Ool.) Dundry?
Stonesfield ?
Pycnodus Bucklandi, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 16. t.
72a. £.15-22. Prév. Ann, Se. uat. xviii.
no. 8. Bron. Leth. ii. p. 494. t. 25. f. 3.
(Ool.) Stonesfield. (Caen.)
Pycnodus didymus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 72a. f.24,
25. (Ool.) Stonesfield.
Pycnodus Hugii, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 17. t. 72a.
f. 49-54. (Ool.) Stonesfield. (Jur. So-
leure. Portl. Le Banné. Villars.)
Pycnodus latirostris, 4g. Msc. (Ool.) Stones-
field.
Pycnodus Mantellii, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 72a. f.
6-14. Mant. Tilg. t.17.f. 26, 27. (=P.
microdon, 4g. 1.c. p.17.) (Ool.) Tilgate.
Sussex. (Ratisbonne.)
Pycnodus obtusus, 4g. Msc.
field.
(Ool.) Stonesfield.
Pycnodus patvus, 4g. Msc. (Ool.) Stones-_
field.
Pyctodus rugulosus, 4g. P.foss. ii. t. 72a. £.23.
(Ool.) Stonesfield. Northampton.
Pycnodus tristychius, 4g. Msc.
Pycnodus umbonatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 16.
t. 72a. f.1—-4. (Ool.) Stonesfield. York-
shire. (Jur. m. Normandie.)
(Ool.) Little
Pyenodus biserialis, 4g. Msc.
Gibraltar near Oxford. ‘
Pycnodus discoides, 4g. Msc: (Ool.) Little
Gibraltar near Oxford.
‘Acipensérides.
Chondrosteus acipenseroides, 4g. Msc.
(Lias.) Lyme Regis.
CRETACEOUS SYSTEM.
I, Puacoipes.
Ichthyodorulithes.
Ptychodus acutus, Evert.
Ag. P. foss. iii, p.
177.
(Gault.) Folkstone,
Ptychodus spectabilis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 57.
t.10a. £1; 3. (Cr.) Lewes.
(Ool.) Stones- -
Pycnodus ovalis, dg. P. fos. ii. t. 72a. £. 5. -
- marble.) .
204
Ptychodus gibberulus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 58.
t. 10a. f.4. (Cr.) Lewes.
Ptychodus arcuatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 58. t.
10a. f.2. (Cr.) Lewes.
Ptychodus articulatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 58.
t. 10a. f.5,6. (Cr.) Lewes.
REPORT—1843.
Hybodus sulcatus, 4g. P. foss. ili. p. 44. t.100.
f. 15,16. (Cr.) Lewes.
Chimera (Psittacodon) Mantellii, Buckl. Proc.
Geol. Soc. ii. p.206. 4g. P. foss. iii. p.348.
t. 40a. f.1,2. (Cr. bl.) Kent.
Spinax major, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 62. t. 100. £.8
-14; t. 40a. f. 6-8. (Cr.) Lewes.
Cestraciontes.
Ptychodus mammillaris, 4. P. foss. iii. p.151.
t. 254. f. 11-20. Park. Org. Rem. iii. t.
18.f.12. Mant. South. D. t. 32, 39, 40.
? Pt. Knorrii, Sternd. Verh. Nat. Mus.
Bohm. 1829. t.1. £5. (Cr. bl.) Sussex.
Kent. (Cr. Paris. Quedlinburg. Bel-
luno. Bennatek. Delaware. Plan.
Strehla.)
Ptychodus decurrens, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 154.
t. 250. f.1-8. (Cr.) Sussex. (Passy.
Bennatek. Belluno. Mount Saint Ca-
therine. Gr. y. Bockum. Ratisbon.
Quedlinburg.)
Ptychodus altior, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.155. t. 256.
f.9,10. Mant. South. D. t. 32. f.17, 21,
27. (Cr.) Sussex.
Ptychodus polygyrus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 156.
t. 250. £.21-23; t.25.f.4-11. Park.Org.
Rem. iii. t.19. £18. Briickm. Ep. 64. t.
4.no.5. Mant. South. D. t. 32. f. 23, 24.
(Cr.) Sussex. Kent. Cambridge. (Bel-
gique.)
Ptychodus latissimus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 157.
t. 25a; t. 250. f. 24-26. Mant. t. 32.£.19.
Pt. Schlotheimii, Miinst. (Cr.) Sussex.
ee Bockum. Belluno. Benna-
tek.
Acrodus transversus, 4g. P. foss. iii. (oublié
dans le texte) t.104. f. 4,5. (Cr. bl.)
Lewes.
Strophodus asper, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 1280. t.
104. f.1-3.(Psammodus asper). (Cr.bl.)
Lewes.
Strophodus sulcatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 176.
(Gr. v.) Maidstone.
Squalides.
Scylliodus antiquus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 378.
t.38. (Cr.) Kent. Burham.
Notidanus microdon, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 221.
t. 27. f.1; t. 36. f.1, 2. (Cr.) Sussex.
Kent. Cambridge. (Quedlinburg.)
Notidanus pectinatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 221.
t. 36. f.3. (Cr.) Angleterre.
Corax falcatus, dg. P. foss. iii. p. 226. t. 26a.
f.1-15; t. 26. £.14. (Galeus pristodontus).
(Cr. bl.) Brighton. Kent. (Cr. Qued-
linburg. PI. Strehla.)
Otodus appendiculatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.270.
t.32.f.1-25. (Cr.) Sussex. Kent. Cam-
bridge. (Gault.) Speeton. (Cr. Maés-
tricht. Aix-la-Chapelle. Delaware. Nor-
mandie. Gr. y. Essen. Quedlinburg.
Plain. Strehla, &c.
Oxyrhina Mantellii, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 280. t.
33.f.1-9.(Lamna crassissima olim.) (Cr.)
Sussex, &c.
Chimera (Ischyodon) Agassizii, Buckl. Proc.
Geol. Soc. ii. p. 206. 4g. P. foss. ili. p.
341. t. 40a. f. 3-5; t. 40c. f. 14-16. (Gr.
vy.) Maidstone.
Chimera (Ischyodon) brevirostris, 4g. P. foss.
iii. p. 344. (Gault.) Folkstone.
Chimera (Ischyodon) Gigas, Zyert. Msc.
(Cr.) Sussex.
Lamna acuminata, 4g. P.foss. iii. p.292.t.37a.
f. 54-57. Mant. Geol. Suss. t. 32. f. 1.
(Squalus cornubicus.) Cceloptychium
acaule, Goldf. Petr. Germ. i. p. 220. t. 65.
f.12, Ag. in Leon. u. Br. Jahrb. 1834.
p. 382. Bron. Leth. ii. p. 743. t. 27.f. 24.
(Cr. bl.) Kent. Sussex. Yorkshire. (Gr.
v.) Prewsey. (Cr. Maéstricht. Qued-
linburg. Aix-la-Chapelle. Amérique
Nord. Plan. Saxe.)
Lamna (Odontaspis) raphiodon, 4g. P. foss.
lil. p. 296. t. 37a. f. 11-16. Bron, Leth.
ii. p.744. Squalus rhaphiodon, 4g. (Coll.
Bron.) Squale Roussette, Fauj. Mt. St.
Pierre, p.110. t.18. f.2. (Cr. bl.) Lewes.
(Delaware. Gr. vy. Ratisbonne.)
Lamna (Odontaspis) subulata, 4g. P. foss. iii.
p- 296. t. 37a. f.5-7. (Gr. v.) Bognor.
(Ratisbonne. Cr. marn. Quedlinburg.)
Chimérides.
Chimera (Psittacodon) Mantellii, Buck. Proc.
Geol. Soc. p. 206. dg. P. foss. iii. p. 348.
t. 40a. 1,2. (Cr. bl.) Kent.
Chimera (Psittacodon) Sedgwickii, 4g. P.
foss. iii. p. 349. t. 40. £17,18. (Cr.)
Cambridge.
II. GANOiDEs.
Lépidoides.
Lepidotus punctulatus, 4g. Msc.
(Cr.) Burham. Kent.
Sauroides.
Caturus similis, 4g. P. foss, ii. t. 66a. £9. (Cr.) Lewes.
FOSSIL FISHES.
205
Calacanthes.
Macropoma Mantellii, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 65a, bl.) Lewes. (Cr.) Sussex. Cambridge.
650, 65c, 65d. Bron. Leth. ii. Amia Chimay.
Lewesiensis, Mant. Geol. Suss. t. 38,37. | Macropomalgertoni,4g.Msc. (Gault.) Spee-
(Coprol.) t. 9. f. 5-11. Geol. Tr, iii. p. ton.
207. Geol. S. E. Engl. p. 142.377. (Cr.
Pycnodontes.
Acrotemnus Faba, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 66a. f. 16
-18. (Cr.) Lewes.
Gyrodus angustus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 66a. f. 14,
15. (Cr.) Lewes. Maidstone.
Gyrodus cretaceus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t.60a. f.13.
(Cr.) Lewes.
Gyrodus mammillaris, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 73.
f.1, 2. (Spherodus mammillaris olim.)
(Cr.) Clayton. (Cr. bl.) Lewes.
Gyrodus minor, 4g. P. foss. ii. p. 16. t. 60a.
f.14. Phill. Geol. York. (Speet. cl.)
Yorkshire.
Pycnodus angustus, 4g.Msc. Fauj.t.19.f.2.
Burt. t.1.8. Lind. 1399. (Cr. bl.) Kent.
(Cr. Maéstr. Aix-la-Chapelle.)
Pycnodus cretaceus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 72a.
f.60. (Cr. bl.) Kent.
Pycnodus elongatus, 4g. Msc. (Cr. bl.)
Lewes.
Pycnodus minor, 4g. Msc. (Speet. cl.) Spee-
ton.
Pycnodus subclavatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 72a.
£.59. (Cr. bl.) Kent. (Cr. Maéstricht.)
Spherodus..... , 4g.Mse. (Cr.bl.) Lewes.
Sclérodermes.
Dercetis elongatus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 66a. f.1
-8. Bron. Leth. ii.
ensis, Mant. Geol. Suss. t. 40. f.2; t. 34.
Murena Lewesi-
f.10,11. Geol. Tr. iii. p. 207. Geol. 8. E.
Engl. p.377. (Cr. bl.) Lewes. Sussex.
Ill. Cr&noipeEs.
Percoides.
Beryx ornatus, 4g. P. foss. iv. p.115. t.14a;
t. 146. f.2; t.14e. f.1-6; t.14d.. Zeus
Lewesiensis, Mant. Geol. Suss. t. 34. f. 6;
t. 35, 36. Geol. Tr. viii. p. 207. Geol.
S. E. Engl. p. 136,377. (Cr. bl.) Sussex.
Kent. (Continent. Bohéme, &c.)
Beryx radians, 4g. P. foss. iv. p. 118. t. 14e.
f. 7-9; t. 140. f. 7. (Cr, bl.) Lewes.
Kent.
Beryx microcephalus, 4g. P. foss. iv. p. 119.
: 146. f. 3-6; t.14¢.f.10. (Cr.) Lewes.
ent.
IV. CycLoipes.
Hypsodon Lewesiensis, 4g. P. foss. v. t. 25a,
25d. (Megalodon et Cladocyclus olim.)
=H. sauroides, 4g. Mant. +.42.f.1-5;
t. 33. f.8. (Cr.) Lewes.
Enchodus Halocyon, dg. P. foss. v. t. 25e.
f.1-16. Esox Lewesiensis, Mant. Geol.
Suss. t. 44. f. 1, 2; t. 33. f. 2-4; Geol.
Trans. iii. p. 207; Geol. S. E. Engl. p.
140, 377. (Cr.) Lewes. Sussex. Nor-
folk. (Belgique. Maéstricht. Amérique
Nord.)
Saurocephalus lanciformis, Harl. J. Philad.
iii. p. 331. t. 3. f. 1-5. (?S. cuneiformis.)
Ag. P. foss. y. t. 25e. f. 21-29. Mant.
Geol. Suss. t. 33. f..7,9. Brewst. J. i.
p. 382. Féruss. Bull. iv. p. 32. Kriig.
Urw. Nat. ii. p. 253. Holl. p.91. Wagl.
Syst. Amph. p. 140. Hari. Edinb. Phil.
J. xviii. p.28. H.v. Mey. Pal. p.114, 222.
Bron. Leth. ii. p.751. (Cr.) Lewes. (New
Jersey.)
Saurocephalus striatus, 4g. P. foss. v. t. 25.
f. 17-20. (Cr.) Lewes. (New Jersey.)
Saurodon Leanus, Hays. Tr. Amer. Phil. Soc.
1830. iii. p. 476. t.19. Ag. P. foss, v.
t. 25e. f. 30, 31. Féruss. Bull. xxii. p.
127. Leon. u. Br. Jahrb. xviii. p. 246.
HI, v. Mey. Pal. p.114, 223. Ag.in L. u.
Br. Jahrb. 1835. p.107. Hari. Tr. Geol.
Philad. i. Edinb. N. Phil. Journ. xviii.
p- 28. Bron. Leth. ii. p. 752. (Cr. bl.)
Lewes. (Amérique Nord.)
Tetrapterus minor, 4g. P. foss. v. t. 60a. f. 9-
13. (Cr. bl.) Lewes.
Acrognathus boops, 4g. P. foss. v. t. 60a. f. 1-
4, (Cr.) Lewes.
Aulolepis Typus, 4g. P. foss. v. t. 60a. £. 5-8.
(Cr.) Clayton. Lewes. Burham.
Osmeroides Lewesiensis, 4g. P. foss. v. t. 603,
60c. (Halec olim.) Salmo Lewesiensis,
Mant. Geol. Suss. t. 40. f.1; t. 33. £12;
t. 34. f.1-3. Geol. Tr. iii. p. 207. Geol.
S. E. Engl. p. 138, 377. O. Mantelli,
Eggert. Cat. (Cr.) Lewes. Sussex.
Osmeroides granulatus, 4g. Msc. (Cr. bl.)
Lewes.
206
REPORT—1843.
TERTIARY SYSTEM.
IT. PLAcoipEs.
Ichthyodorulithes,
Myliobates toliapicus, Ag. P. foss. iii. p. 331.
t. 47. f. 15-20; p. 331. t. 45. f. 21-23.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Myliobates Owenii, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 331. t.
45. f,11-13, (Lond, cl.) Sheppy.
Myliobates acutus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p,331. t.45.
f,14-17. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Myliobates canaliculatus, 4g, P. foss. iii, p,331.
t. 45. f. 18-20. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Myliobates lateralis, 4g. P. foss. iii. a 331.
t. 45. f. 24-27. (Lond. cl.) Shepp;
Myliobates marginalis, 4g. P, foss. iii. HW 331.
(Lond. cl.) Barton. Sheppy.
Zygobates Woodwardii, dg. P. foss, iii. p.329,
333, t. R. f.6,7. (Crag.) Norfolk.
Squalides.
Notidanus serratissimus, 4g. P.foss, iii, p.222.
t. 36. f.4,5. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Glyphis hastalis, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 244. t. 36.
f.10-13. (Lond. cl.)
Carcharodon toliapicus, 4g, P. foss. iii. p. 257.
t. 30a. f.14. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy,
Carcharodon subserratus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.260.
t. 36. f.14, 15. (Carcharias subserratus,
Ag. in Egert. Cat.) (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Otodus obliquus, 4g, P, foss. iii, p. 267. t. 31;
t. 36. f. 22-27, (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Otodus macrotus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 273. t. 32.
f. 29-31. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy. (C. gr.
Véteuil. Chaumont. Parme.)
Lamna elegans, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 289. t. 35.
f.1-7; t.37a.£.58,59. (Lond.cl.) Sheppy.
(C. gr. Paris. Grignon. Dax. Bor-
deaux, &c. Italie.)
Lamna compressa, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.290, t.37a.
f. 35-42, (Lond. cl.) Sheppy, (C. gr.
Chaumont.)
Lamna (Odontaspis) Hopei, 4g. P. foss, iii, p.
293, t.37a.f, 27-30. (Lond.cl.) Sheppy.
Lamna (Odontaspis) verticalis, 4g. P. foss.
iii. p. 55 t. 37a. f. 31,32. (Lond. cl.)
Shepp
Lamna ete) contortidens, 49. P. foss.
iii. p. 294, t. 37a. f. 17-23. (Crag.) An-
gleterre, (Mol, Suisse. ci Flonheim.
C. mol. Thiengen.)
Pristis bisulcatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 382*. t.
41. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Pristis acutidens, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 382**.
(Sabl.) Bagshot.
Pristis Hastingsie, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 382*.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy. Hampshire.
Raies.
Myliobates toliapicus, 4g. P. foss, iii, p. 321.
t. 47. f. 15-20; p. 331. t. 45. f, 21-23.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
mes goniopleurus, 49. P.foss.iii.p.319.
-£.9,10. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Mylicbates Dixoni, Ag. P. foss. iii, p. 319.
(Lond. cl.) Sussex.
Myliobates striatus, 4g. P. foss. iii, p. 320.
Buckl. Min, Geol. t. 27d, f, 14, (Lond.
cl.) Sheppy.
Myliobates punctatus, 4g. P, foss. iii. p. 322.
t.47, £11,122. (Lond, cl.) Sheppy.
Myliobates gyratus, dg. P. foss. iii. p. 323.
t. 46. f. 1-3, ‘or cl.) Sheppy.
Myliobates Jugalis, Ag, P. foss. iii. p. 324. t.
47. f.13, 14. (?M, heteropleuri, var.)
(Lond, cl.) Sheppy-.
Myliobates nitidus, 4g, P. foss, iii. p. 325.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy. Barton
Myliobates Colei, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 325, (Lond.
cl.) Sheppy
Myliobates re Ag. P. foss. iii. p.
323, t, 47. f.6-8. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy?
Aétobatis irregularis, 4g, P. foss, iii, p. 327.
t. 47. f,3-5, (Lond. el,) Sheppy. Sus-
sex.
Aétobatis subarcuatus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p. 328,
(Lond, cl.) Sheppy. Barton,
Zygobates Woodwardii, 4g. P. foss. iii, p, 329,
333, t. R. f,6,7. (Crag.) Norfolk.
Raja antiqua, 4g. P. foss. iii, p. 371, t.37. £.33.
(Crag.) Norfolk,
Chimérides.
Elasmodus Hunterii, Zyer¢t. Ow. Odontogr.
p- 66. 4g. P. foss. iii, p. 350. (Lond,
cl.) Sheppy.
Edaphodon Bucklandii, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.351.
t. 40d. f. 1-4, 9-12, 19-24. Ed. latidens,
Bueki. (Sabl.) Bagshot.
Edaphodon eurygnathus, 4g. P. foss. iii. p.352.
(Lond. cl.) Sussex.
Bdaphodon leptognathus, 49. P. foss. iii. p.352.
t. 40d. f. 5-8, 13-18. Ed. angustidens,
Buck. (Sabl.) Bagshot.
Passalodon rostratus, 4g, P. foss. iii. p. 352.
(Sabl.) Bagshot,
Psaliodus compressus, Egert, dg. P. foss. iii.
p. 351. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
II, GanoipeEs.
Pycnodontes.
a tm irregularis, 4g. Msc.
Sheppy.
(Lond, cl.)
Phyllodus medius, 4g. Msc.
(Lond. cl.)
Sheppy.
Sl
FOSSIL FISHES.
Phyllodus marginalis, 4g. P, foss. ii. t. 60a.
f.8-9. (Lond. cl.)
Phyllodus planus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 60a. f. 4, 5.
Lond. cl
Phyllodus polyodus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 60a. f. 6,
7. (Lond. cl.)
Phyllodus toliapicus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 60a. £1
~3, (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
207
Pycnodus toliapicus, 4g. P. foss. ii. t.72a. £.55.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Periodus Keenigii, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 72a. f. 61,
62. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Gyrodus leyior, 4g. P. foss. ii. t. 69a. f. 12.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Pisodus Oweni, 4g. Ow. Odont. p. 138. t. 47.
(Lond. cl.) Hampshire.
Acipensérides.
Acipenser toliapicus, 4g. Msc,
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Sclérodermes.
Glyptocephalus radiatus, 49. Msc.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
III. Crenoipzs.
Seiénoides.
Scizenurus Bowerbankii, 4g. Msc.
Scizenurus crassior, 4g. Mse.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
(Lond. el.) Sheppy.
Chétodontes.
Platax Woodwardii, 4g. P. foss. iy, p. 250. t.19. f.3. (Crag.) Norfolk.
IV. Cycioipes.
Scombéroides.
Osun macropomum, 4g. P. foss. v. t. 26.
f.1-3. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Sphyrznodus priscus, 4g. P. foss. vy. (Dicty-
odus, Ow.) t. 26. f. 4-6. (Lond. cl.)
Sheppy. Goniognathus gies Ag. Mse. (Lond.
- Sphgnengeins crassidens, 4g, Mse. (Lond. el.) Shepp
Sheppy. Coloaiaacu. in 4g, Msc. (Lond, cl.).
~ Hypsodon oblongus, 4g. Msc. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Sheppy. Ccelorhynchus sinuatus, 4g. Msc. (Lond. cl,}
~ Hypsodon toliapicus, 4g. Msc. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Sheppy. Clupéoides.
-Megalops priscus, 4g. Msc.
~ Halecopsis levis, dg. Msc.
- Ceelocephalus salmoneus, 4g. Msc.
Tetrapterus priscus, 4g, P. foss, v. t. 31. f. l=
3. (Lond, cl.) Sheppy.
Goniognathus coryphznoides,
(Lond. el.) Sheppy.
Ag. Msc.
(Lond, cl.) Sheppy.
(Lond, cl.) Sheppy.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
Genera adhue inecerte sedis.
~ CelopomaColei,4y.Msc. (Lond.cl.) Sheppy.
~ Ceelopoma leve, 4g.Mse. (Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
- te chars, tenuiceps, 4g. Msc. (Lond.
el
~ Rhynchorhinus branchialis, Ag. Msc, (Lond.
cl.) Sheppy.
— Pachycephalus cristatus, 4g. Msc. (Lond.
cl.) Sheppy.
Podocephalus nitidus, 4g. Msc. (Lond. cl.)
Sheppy.
Bothrosteus latus,4g.Mse. (Lond.cl.)Sheppy.
Bothrosteus brevifrons, 4g. Mse. (Lond, cl.)
Sheppy.
Rhinocephalus planiceps, 4g. Msc. (Lond,
cl.) Sheppy.
Ampheristus toliapicus, Kénig. Jeon. Sect.
(Lond. cl.) Sheppy.
7
208 REPORT—1843.
Report on the British Fossil Mammalia.
By Ricuarp Owen, Esq., F.R.S.
Part Il. Ungulata.
Order PACHYDERMATA.
Genus Elephas.
Wuen the science of fossil organic remains was less advanced than it is at
present, when its facts and generalizations were new, and sounded strange
not only to the ears of the unscientific but to anatomists and naturalists, the
announcement of the former existence of animals in countries where the like
had not been known within the memory of man, still more of species not
known to exist in any part of the world, was received with distrust and
doubt, and many endeavours were made to explain the former phenomena
by reference to known circumstances that might have led to the introduc-
tion of tropical animals into temperate zones within the historical period.
When Cuvier first announced the existence of Elephants, Rhinoceroses and
Hippopotamuses in the superficial unstratified deposits of continental Europe,
he was reminded of the Elephants that were introduced into Italy by Pyrrhus
in the Roman wars, and afterwards more abundantly, and with the stranger
quadrupeds of conquered tropical countries, in the Roman triumphs and games
of the amphitheatre. Cuvier’s minute anatomical distinctions, proving the
disinterred fossils to have belonged to extinct species of Elephas, Hippopo-
tamus, Rhinoceros, &c., were at first hardly appreciated, and, by some of his
contemporaries, were explained away or dissallowed. Cuvier, therefore, ap-
pealed with peculiar satisfaction to the testimonies and records of analogous
Mammalian fossils in the British Isles, to the origin of which it was obvious
that the hypothesis of Roman or other foreign introduction within the histo-
rical period could not be made applicable.
“Tf,” says the founder of paleontological science, “passing across the
German Ocean, we transport ourselves into Britain, which, in ancient history,
by its position, could not have received many living elephants besides that
one which Cesar brought thither according to Polinzeus*; we shall, never-
theless, find there fossils in as great abundance as on the continent.”
Cuvier then cites the account given by Sir Hans Sloane of an elephant’s
fossil tusk, disinterred in Gray’s Inn Lane, out of the gravel twelve feet be-
low the surface. Sir Hans Sloane had obtained also the molars of an elephant
from the county of Northampton, which were found in blue clay beneath
vegetable mould and loam, from 8 to 6 feet below the surface; these spe-
cimens were explained by Dr. Ciiper as having belonged to the identical
elephant brought over to England by Cesar; but Cuvier remarks that too
many similar fossils had been found in England to render that conjecture
admissible. He then proceeds to quote the instances recorded at the period
of the publication of the ‘Ossemens Fossiles.’
Dr. Buckland adds the weighty objection, that the remains of these Ele-
phants are usually accompanied in England, as on the continent, by the bones
of the Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus, animals which could never have been
attached to Roman armies ; and I may add, that the natural historians of Ire-~
land, Neville and Molineux, made known in 1715 the existence of fossil molar
teeth of the Elephant at Maghery, eight miles from Belturbet in the county of
Cavan, and similar evidences of the Elephant have since been discovered in
other localities of Ireland, where the armies of Cesar never set foot. Some
other hypothesis must therefore be resorted to in order to explain these phe-
nomena.
* Lib. viii. c. 23. § 5, cited in Ossem. Fossiles, 4to, 1821, tom.i. p. 134.
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 209
Observation, which ought to precede all hypothesis, as it alone can form
the basis of any sound one, has shown in the first place that the remains of
the Elephants which are scattered over Europe in the unstratified superficial
deposits called ‘ Diluvium,’ ‘ Drift,’ ‘ Till,’ ‘ Glacio-diluvium,’ as well as those
from the upper tertiary strata, are specifically different from the teeth and
bones of the two known existing Elephants, the Hlephas Indicus and El.
Africanus. This fundamental fact, when first appreciated by Cuvier, who
announced it in 1796, opened to him, he says, entirely new views of the
theory of the earth, and a rapid glance, guided by the new and pregnant
idea, over other fossil bones, made him anticipate all that he afterwards
proved, and determined him to consecrate to this great work the future years
of his life.
The differences which the skull of the fossil Elephant presents as compared
with the recent species are, the more angular form and relative shortness of
the zygomatic processes; the longer, more pointed and more curved form
of the postorbital process ; the larger and more prominent tubercle of the la-
chrymal bone ; the greater length of the sockets of the tusks ; the more parallel
position of the right and left sockets of the grinders, making the anterior in-
terspace and channel at the junction of the rami of the lower jaw proportion-
ably wider than in the existing Elephants. Of the differences in the confor-
mation of the skull above enumerated, I have verified the last-mentioned
instance, taken from the lower jaw, by observation of English specimens ;
they are well displayed in the lower jaw of a young Mammoth disinterred
from a Pleistocene bed near Yarmouth in the county of Norfolk, and now in
the possession of Mr. E. Stone, of Garlick Hill, London.
This lower jaw shows also that the outer contour of one ramus meets that
of the other at a more open angle than in the African or Asiatic Elephant,
and that the symphysis itself, though acute at this period of life, is less pro-
longed. In the older Mammoths the symphysis becomes obtuse; were it
otherwise, the prolonged alveoli of the fully-developed tusks would have in-
terfered with the motion of the lower jaw.
The difference between the extinct and existing species of Elephant in re-
gard to the structure of the teeth, has been more or less manifested by every
specimen of fossil elephant’s tooth that I have hitherto seen from British
strata, and those now amount to upwards of three thousand. Very few of
them could be mistaken by a comparative anatomist for the tooth of an
Asiatic Elephant, and they are all obviously distinct from the peculiar molars
of the African Elephant.
_ Cuvier, who had recognized a certain range of variety in the structure of
the numerous teeth of the Mammoth from continental localities, found never-
theless that the molars of the fossil Elephant were broader in proportion to
their length or antero-posterior diameter than in the existing species; that
the transverse plates were thinner and more numerous in the fossil molars
than in those of the Indian Elephant; that a greater number of plates entered
into the formation of the grinding surface of the tooth, and that the lines of
enamel were less festooned ; but to this character there are exceptions, espe-
cially in the large molars of aged individuals.
Varieties.— Question of Species.
The varieties to which the grinders of the different species of Elephants
are subject in regard to the thickness and number of their plates, increase in
the ratio of the average number of the plates which characterizes the molar
teeth of the different species. Thus in the African Elephant, in which the
lozenge-shaped plates are always much fewer and thicker than the flattened
; P
210 REPORT—1843.
ones in the Indian species, the variation which can be detected in any number
of the grinders of the same size is very slight.
In the Asiatic Elephant, which, besides the difference in the shape of the
plates, has always thinner and more numerous plates than the African one,
a greater amount of variation in both these characters obtains; but it is
always necessary to bear in mind the caution which Cuvier suggested to
Camper, that a large molar of an old elephant is not to be compared with a
small molar of a young one, otherwise there will appear to be a much greater
discrepancy in the thickness of the plates than really exists in the species;
and the like caution is still more requisite in the comparison of the molars of
the Mammoth or fossil Elephant (Alephas primigenius), which, having nor-
mally more numerous and thinner plates than in the existing Asiatic Elephant,
present a much greater range of variety.
Of the extent of this variety in the British fossils some idea may be gained
by the fact, that in one private collection, that of Miss Gurney of Cromer, of
fossil Mammalian remains from a restricted locality, there are Mammoth’s
teeth from the drift of the adjacent coast, one of which, measuring 10 inches
9 lines in antero-posterior diameter, has nineteen plates, whilst another grinder,
11 inches in antero-posterior diameter, has only thirteen plates.
A greater contrast is presented by two grinders of the Mammoth from
British diluvium in the collection of the late Mr. Parkinson, one of which,
with a grinding surface of 54 inches in antero-posterior extent, exhibits the
abraded summits of seventeen plates, whilst the other shows only nine plates
in the same extent of grinding surface.
Some paleontologists have viewed these differences as indications of distinct
species of Elephas. But the vast number of grinders of the Mammoth from
British strata which have been in my hands in the course of the last three
years have presented so many intermediate gradations, in the number of
plates, between the two extremes above cited, that I have not been able to
draw a well-defined line between the thick-plated and the thin-plated varieties
of the molar teeth. And if these actually belonged to distinct species of Mam-
moth, they must have merged into one another, so far as the character of the
grinding teeth is concerned, in a degree to which the two existing species of
Elephant, the Indian and African, when compared together, offer no analogy.
Five or six molars of the Mammoth, and even a greater number, if the
peculiar changes superinduced by friction on the grinding surface were not
taken into account, might be selected from such a series as I have above re-
ferred to, as indications of as many distinct species of Mammoth: such speci-
mens have been so interpreted by Parkinson, and likewise by Fischer, Gold-
fuss, Nesti and Croizet, cited in the Paleologica of Hermann VY. Meyer, as
authorities for eight distinct species of extinct Elephant.
We must, however, enter more deeply into the consideration of these varie-
ties, before concluding that the Mammoths which severally exemplify them
in their molar teeth were distinct species. In the first place, whatever dif-
ference the molars of the Mammoth from British strata have presented in
the number of their lamellar divisions, they have corresponded in having a
greater proportion of these plates on the triturating surface, and likewise, with
two exceptions, in their greater proportional breadth, than the molars of the
Asiatic Elephant present. The first exception here alluded to was from the
diluvial gravel of Staffordshire, and formed part of the collection of Mr.
Parkinson, the author of the ‘Organic Remains ;’ the second exception was
from the brick-earth of Essex, and is now in the collection of my friend Mr.
Brown of Stanway ; this molar, though it combines the thicker plates with the
narrower form of the entire tooth characteristic of the Indian Elephant, differs
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 211
in’ the greater extent of the grinding surface and the greater number of plates
entering into the composition of that surface.
With regard to the first-cited exception, the following is the result of a
close comparison instituted between it and a corresponding grinder of the
Indian Elephant. .
The fossil in question is an inferior molar of the right side of the lower
jaw. It exhibits the most complete state in which so large a grinder can be
met with, the anterior division of the crown not being quite worn down to
the fang, and the hindmost plate being just on the point of coming into
use. The whole length of the tooth is 13 inches; the total number of lamellar
divisions of the crown seventeen, of which the summits of fourteen aré
abraded in a grinding surface of 9 inches’ extent. The greatest breadth of
this surface is 24 inches. The first three fangs supporting the common
dentinal base of the anterior lamelle are well developed. The transverse
ridges of enamel are festooned. Compared with the thin-plated grinders of
the Mammoth, these differ not only in their more numerous, thinner and
broader plates, but likewise in the thicker coat of external cement which fills
the lateral interspaces of the coronal plates, and in having the fangs developed
from the whole base of the tooth, even from the posterior plate, the summit
of the mammillary process of which has just begun to be abraded. But from
the corresponding molar of the Indian Elephant the present tooth of the Mam-
moth differs in the more equable length of the coronal plates, which in the
Elephant, by their more progressive elongation, give a triangular figure to the
side-view of the crown; it differs also in the greater length of the grinding
surface, which includes two additional plates, although these are not thinner
and are not characterized by superior breadth as in the ordinary teeth of the
Mammoth.
These differences from the teeth of the Indian Elephant, and the interme-
diate gradations in the fossil molars by which such rare extreme varieties are
linked to the normal type of the Mammoth’s dentition, justify us in rejecting
the conclusion that the Hlephas Indicus coexisted with the Mammoth in the
latitude of England during the antediluvial or anteglacial epoch : and I think
it probable that such differences as have been pointed out in the molar from
the Museum of Parkinson, and that of the existing Elephant, might likewise
have been detected in the large molar, found at the depth of 6 feet, in brick
loam, at Hove near Brighton, and alluded to by Dr. Mantell as decidedly
that of the Asiatic Elephant*. One of the molars from the Elephant bed at
Brighton, now in the possession of Mr. Stone of Garlick Hill, exhibits the nar-
row-plated variety of the Mammoth’s grinder. The molars of the Mammoth
generally contain a greater proportion of cement in the intervals of the plates
than the Indian Elephant’s grinders do. Those in which the plates are more
numerous have the enamel iess strongly plicated; but in some of the large
molar teeth of old Mammoths with the thicker plates, I have seen the enamel
as strongly festooned as in the teeth of the Indian Elephant.
The bones of the Mammoth that have hitherto been disinterred present no
yariations from the characteristic extinct type indicative of distinct species ;
and it might reasonably have been expected that the lower jaw, for example,
with the broad-plated tooth should offer as recognizable differences from that.
with the narrow-plated teeth, as this does from the lower jaw of the Indian
Elephant, if those modifications of the teeth of the Mammoth indicated distinct
species. The lower jaw, however, of the ancient British Mammoth has the
same distinctive modification of the symphysis as that of the typical Siberian
* Fossils of the South Downs, 4to, 1822, p. 283.
212 REPORT—1843.
specimen figured by Cuvier, and which is equally presented by that of the
Mammoth of Auvergne, figured by the Abbé Croizet *, and by that described
by Nesti +.
Both these authors being unacquainted with the intermediate varieties, in-
cline to regard the Mammoth with the thick-plated molars as a distinct species,
which V. Meyer in his work cites as the Elephas meridionalis. In regard,
however, to the proposed distinctive name, I may remark that the variety of
molar on which this species is founded occurs not only in England, but in
Siberia, and as far north as Eschscholtz Bay.
Most of the molars of the Mammoth from North America are characterized
by thinner and more numerous plates than those of England, but the differ-
ence is not constant. The Mammoth’s molar from the Norfolk coast in the
collection of Miss Gurney, which shows nineteen plates in a length of 10
inches, equals several of the molars from North America in the number of
the plates. An upper molar of a Mammoth from the gravel of Ballingdon,
with a total antero-posterior diameter of 7 inches, consists of twenty plates.
Mr. Parkinson cites a molar, now in the Museum of the College of Surgeons,
from Wellsbourne in Warwickshire, in which twenty plates exist in a length
of 64 inches ; and he figures another molar from the till of Essex, which, in a
length of 83 inches, contains twenty-four plates. On the other hand, the
molars of the Mammoths from Eschscholtz Bay, North America, figured by
Dr. Buckland, manifest the same kind of variety as those from the English
drift ; one with a grinding surface 73 inches long, exhibiting nineteen plates,
whilst another in the same extent of grinding surface shows only thirteen
plates ; both these teeth are from lower jaws, which, like the lower jaw con-
taining the broader-plated tooth described by Prof. Nesti, are precisely simi-
lar in form to the other fossil jaws of the Mammoth; they present the same
specific differences from the Asiatic Elephant, and offer no modification that
can be regarded as specifically distinct from the Mammoth’s jaws with nar-
row-plated molars of Siberia or Ohio.
Mr. Parkinson has figured a Mammoth’s molar from Staffordshire, which
he deemed to differ from every other that had come to his knowledge in the
great thickness of the plates, the smoothness of the sides of the line of ena-
mel, and the appearance of the digitated part of the plates even in the anterior
part of the tooth}.
This specimen, which is now in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, is
the posterior part of a large grinder of an old Mammoth. The superior thick-
ness of the plates arises from the circumstance of the posterior plates being
thicker than the anterior ones; these thick plates are more deeply cleft, or
their digitated summits are longer, and advance further forward upon the
grinding surface of the molar before they are worn down to their common
base ; they appear also in the specimen to be more advanced than they really
are, because of the deficiency of the fore-part of the tooth, which has been
broken away. In my opinion this molar has the characters of the thick-plated
variety, simply exaggerated from the accidents of age and mutilation above-
mentioned. It manifests the more constant and characteristic modifications
of the Elephas primigenius in its relative breadth, and, notwithstanding their
thickness, in the number of the plates (nine), which have been exposed by
attrition. I have seen a very similar molar of the Mammoth from the Norfolk
freshwater deposits in the collection of Mr. Fitch of Norwich.
The abraded summits of the component plates of the Mammoth’s molars
most commonly present a slight expansion, often lozenge-shaped, at their
* Fossiles du Puy-de-Dome, p. 125. pl. 3. fig. 1.
t+ Nuoy. Giorn. d, Letter. 1825, p. 195. { Organic Remains, iii. p. 344,
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 213
centre; the summits of the plates are originally divided, with more regularity,
-in general, than those in the Indian Elephant, into three digital processes,
the middle being usually the broadest and thickest ; this character is shown
by the middle dilatation when the three digitations are worn down to their
common base. Only in one small molar, from the brick-earth at Grays, Essex,
in the collection of Mr. Wickham Flower, have I seen the median rhomboidal
dilatation, extending, in the abraded plates, so near the end of the section as to
approximate the characteristic shape of the plates of the African Elephant’s
molar; from which, however, the fossil was far removed by its thinner and
more numerous plates. The fictitious character of the Klephas priscus of
Goldfuss and of V. Baer, one of the eight fossil species admitted in the com-
pilation of V. Meyer, has been demonstrated by Cuvier. I have met with no
nearer approach to this nominal species among the numerous British Mam-
moth’s grinders that I have examined, than the example just quoted from
Grays; I need hardly say that I regard it as another of the numerous varie-
ties to which the molars of the Mammoth were subject.
The clefts that separate the transverse plates are deeper at the sides than at
the middle of the tooth in all Mammoths’ grinders ; hence the ridges of enamel
in a much-worn molar are confined to the outer and inner sides of the grinding
surface, which is traversed along the middle by a continuous tract of dentine.
The layer of enamel extends to this exposed tract, is reflected back upon the
opposite side of the lateral cleft, bends round the outer margin of the remain-
ing base of the plate, and is continued into the next fissure, and so on. When
the edge of this sinuous coat of enamel is exposed by friction, it describes what
Mr. Parkinson has called a “ Deedalian line,” and he has figured two examples
of teeth so worn down in the ‘Organic Remains*.’ Having noticed the
structure in three specimens, Mr. Parkinson conceives it to be characteristic
of a distinct species of Mammoth. But the ordinary teeth of the Mammoth,
from the unequal vertical extent of their plates above described, must neces-
sarily produce the continuous undulating lateral lines of enamel when worn
down to a certain extent. I have seen it only in a few amongst the numerous
molars of the Mammoth examined by me, for teeth so worn down are rare.
It is well shown in the remains of a very large molar, found in the beach near
Happisburg, Norfolk, which on a grinding surface of 4 inches 9 lines in length
and 4 inches wide, shows seven dentinal plates worn down to their common
uniting base of dentine, along the middle of the surface.
It sometimes happens that the outer and inner margins of a plate, which
are always deeper than the middle part, are not on the same transverse line,
but one is inclined a little in advance of the other. In this case the abraded
crown of the tooth, when worn down to the common middle base of dentine,
displays an alternating disposition of the folds of the outer and inner sinuous
lines of enamel. This variety affords grounds of the same kind and value for
a distinct species of Mammoth as for the two other new species proposed by
Mr. Parkinson.
A consideration of the anatomical structure and an extensive comparison
of the teeth in question have led me to the conclusion, that whilst some of
the supposed specific characters are due to effects of changes produced by
age, the others are due to the latitude of variety to which the highly complex
molars of the Hlephas primigenius were subject.
In proof of such variety we have the analogy of existing species: that such
variety is the characteristic of a particular part of the enduring remains of
the Mammoth, may be inferred from the absence of any corresponding dif-
* PI, 20. figs. 5 and 7.
214 REPORT—1843.
ferences in the bones of the Mammoth that have hitherto been found ;
all of which indicate but one species. And this conclusion harmonizes
with the laws of the geographical distribution of the existing species of
Elephant.
Throughout the whole continent of Africa but one species of Elephant has
been recognized. A second species of Elephant is spread over the south of
Asia and some of the adjacent islands; and the results of the more extensive
and accurate observations of this species, whilst they make known some well-
marked varieties, as the Mooknah, the Dauntelah, &c., founded on modifica-
tions of the teeth, establish the unity of species to which those varieties be-
long. If the observed varieties in the dentition of the Mammoth are to be
interpreted, as Parkinson, Nesti, Croizet, V. Meyer and others have done, as
evidences of distinct species, we must be prepared to admit not merely three,
but six or more distinct species of gigantic Mammoths to have roamed through
the primeval swamps and forests of England.
Tusks.—The complete or nearly complete tusks of the Elephas primigenius
from British strata which have fallen under my observation, possess the same
extensive double curvature as the tusks of the great Mammoth in the museum
of St. Petersburgh, from the icy cliff at the mouth of the Lena in Siberia,
and as those brought to England by Capt. Beechey from Eschscholtz Bay,
which have been figured by Dr. Buckland, and are now in the British
Museum.
A very perfect specimen, but of moderate size, was lately dug up twelve
feet below the surface out of the drift gravel of Cambridge; it measures 5
feet in length and 2 feet 4 inches across the chord of its curve, and it is 11
inches in circumference at the thickest part of its base.
In the collection of Mr. Brown of Stanway there is a fragment of a tusk
of the Mammoth, from the freshwater formation at Clacton in Essex, which
measures 2 feet in circumference, thus exceeding the size of the largest of
the tusks brought home by Capt. Beechey from Eschscholtz Bay.
A very fine tusk of the Mammoth from British strata forms part of the
remarkable collection of remains of the Mammoth obtained by the Rev. J.
Layton from the drift of the Norfolk coast, near the village of Happisburgh ;
it was dredged up in 1826, measured 9 feet 6 inches in length, and weighed
ninety-seven pounds.
At Knole-sand, near Axminster, about twenty miles from the coast, Sir
H. De la Beche obtained a tusk 9 feet 8 inches in length. The finest tusk
of a British Mammoth forms part of the rich collection of fossil Mammalian
remains obtained from Ilford by the late Joseph Gibson, Esq. of Stratford,
Essex ; this tusk measured 12 feet 6 inches in length, following the outward
curvature.
The smallest Mammoth’s tusk which I have seen is in the museum of Mr.
Wickham Flower; it is from the drift or till at Ilford, Essex, and has be-
longed to a very young Mammoth; its length measured along the outer
curve is 12% inches, and the circumference of its base is 4 inches. It has
nevertheless been evidently put to use by the young animal, the tip having
been obliquely worn.
The small tusk from the Cambridge gravel has not belonged to a young
animal, but is fully formed, and it most probably indicates a sexual character,
analogous to that in the existing Indian Elephant; the tusks in the female
Mammoth, although more developed than they are in the female Elephas In-
dicus, yet being much shorter than in the male Mammoth.
Bones.—Of the bones of the trunk and extremities of the Mammoth, a few
examples may be briefly noticed. Of two specimens of the atlas of the Mam-
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 215
moth from the newer Pliocene near Cromer, in the collection of Miss Gurney,
the most perfect measures In. Lines.
In: breadtias wil’ E> vistlorie Wi sai. sisal clus oy 16 6
Breadth of the anterior condyles ........ 7 10
Breadth of the posterior ditto............ 9 8
Inwerti¢al diaitieters Jjijej. 2) se steyuaisaaisiie »'e 10 0
A vertebra dentata from the freshwater deposits at Clacton, Essex, twenty
feet above high water mark, in the collection of Mr. Brown of Stanway, mea-
sures 6 inches 9 lines in transverse diameter, 5 inches in vertical diameter, and
has a spinal canal 3 inches in transverse diameter.
A dorsal vertebra, in the same collection, measures in height 1 foot 10
inches, the spinous process being 9 inches high. The transverse diameter
of the vertebra is 8 inches 6 lines, that of the spinal canal being 3 inches.
In Mr. Brown’s collection is also preserved the os sacrum of a Mammoth from
the freshwater formations of Essex. It is of a triangular form; the transverse
diameter of the forepart of the body of the first sacral vertebra is 6 inches
6 lines ; the diameter of the largest nervous foramen was 2 inches 4 lines.
A seapula, with the spine, the supra-spinal plate and base broken away,
from the same formation, shows the characteristic superior breadth of the
glenoid articular cavity at its inferior part, and the shortness of the neck of
the scapula, which Cuvier has recognized in the scapula of the Siberian
Mammoth.
This scapula gave the following dimensions :— Ft. In.
From the glenoid cavity to the inferior angle.... 1 10
Brom -ditte 16 theapines 30:6 62. OS. 0 4
From the middle of the spine to the lower costa
0 8
oftine geapmilnivt ses e248. 02.00 REP. bu
In a fragment of a Mammoth’s scapula from Happisburgh, in the collection
of Mr. Fitch of Norwich, the long diameter of the glenoid articulation was
10 inches, its short diameter 44 inches. The head of the humerus, in the
state of an epiphysis, found with the above fragment, measures 10} inches in
its longest diameter. These parts, notwithstanding their dimensions, have
belonged to an immature specimen of the Mammoth.
Of the stupendous magnitude to which some individuals, doubtless the old
males, of the Hlephas primigenius arrived, several fossils from the British
drift afford striking evidence.
In the noble skeleton of the Mammoth now at St. Petersburgh, which was
found entire in the frozen soil of the banks of the Lena, the humerus is 3
feet 4 inches in length; that of the skeleton of the large Indian Elephant
(Chuny) which was killed at Exeter Change in 1826, is 2 feet 11 inches in
length. In the rich collection of Mammalian remains from the Norfolk coast,
belonging to Miss Gurney of North-repps Cottage, near Cromer, there is an
entire humerus of the Mammoth which measures 4 feet 5 inches in length.
Subjoined are a few of the dimensions of this enormous bone and of its
analogue in the above-mentioned skeleton of the Indian Elephant in the
Museum of the College of Surgeons :—
El. primigenius. Ell. Indicus.
Ft. In. Lin. Ft. In. Lin.
Humerus, entire length............ 4 5 0 211 0
Circumference at the middle ...... 2 2-6 Hi) OOH
Ditto at proximal end .......... 8 BNE UO BB
Breadth of distal end.............. Biogun@ 010 6
From summit of supinator ridge io 170 procs
end of outer condyle,.........
216 REPORT—1843.
The humerus of the Mammoth was found in 1836, after a very high tide,
partially exposed in the cliff, composed of interblended blue clay and red
gravel, near the village of Bacton in Norfolk. The outer crust of the bone
is much shattered; it manifests the specific distinction of the humerus of the
Mammoth in the relatively shorter proportions of the great supinator ridge,
as is shown by the last admeasurement, and the bicipital canal is also rela-
tively narrower.
A portion of a large tibia was obtained from the same bed in 1841; this
bone likewise is in Miss Gurney’s collection.
A humerus of the Mammoth, wanting the proximal end, from Clacton,
Essex, in the collection of Mr. Brown of Stanway, measures 2 feet 10 inches
in length, and 15 inches 6 lines in median circumference, showing the thicker
proportions as compared with the existing Elephant.
The bones of the fore-arm of the Mammoth from British localities have not
offered any characters worthy of notice.
Of those of the fore-foot I have examined some magnificent specimens ob-
tained by Mr. Ball from the brick-loam near Grays, Essex, and which have
belonged to a Mammoth as large as that which must have furnished the
humerus above described.
The following are the comparative dimensions of some of those bones and
of their analogues in the skeleton of Chuny, the great Asiatic Elephant of
Exeter Change :—
El. primigenius. El. Asiaticus.
In. Lin. In. Lin.
Os magnum, vertical diameter....... senate: a 3 0
Middle metacarpal, length ..........++-- 10 O 7 0
Middle breadth of distalend ..... eer ee 3 4
Mr. J. Wickham Flower possesses a fine and perfect specimen of the femur
of the Mammoth from the Essex till, which offers the usual characteristic of
the extinct species in the relatively narrower posterior interspace between the
two condyles and in the thicker shaft. The outer ridge of the femur extends
about two-thirds down the bone. The following are some of its dimensions
compared with that of the Indian Elephant :—
El. primigenius. El. Indicus.
~ Ft. In. Lin, Ft. In. Lin.
PGBM OTD won. » seme: In nieys ante eres 3.4 0 3: pGrg)
Breadth across proximal end ...... | ae EA 1 an Ys 0)
Breadth across back part of condyles. 0 7 6 O.. hi
Circumference of shaft............ 1 ente 20 dies
A femur of the Mammoth, from the drift gravel at Abingdon, is preserved
in the Ashmolean Museum. It is remarkable for its fine state of preserva-
tion, and exhibits the same character of the extinct species as the foregoing
specimen.
The femur of the Mammoth, described by the notable French Surgeon
Habicot, in his ‘ Gigantosteologie, 1613,’ as the thigh-bone of Theutobochus,
king of the Cimbrians, which was said to be 5 feet in length, indicates a
specimen larger than that to which the humerus from Cromer belonged.
M. de Blainville is, however, of opinion that the femur in question belonged
to a Mastodon.
Strata and Localities —Of all the extinct Mammalia which have left their
fossil remains in British strata, no species was more abundant or more widely
distributed than the Mammoth or Elephas primigenius.
Wherever the last general geological force has left traces of its operations
upon the present surface, in the form of drift or unstratified transported frag-
é
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 217
ments of rock and gravel, and wherever the contemporary or immediately
antecedent more tranquil and gradual operations of the sea or fresh waters
have formed beds of marl, of brick-earth or loam, there, with few exceptions,
have fossil bones or teeth of the Mammoth been discovered.
It would be tedious to specify all the particular localities from which, in
collecting the materials for the present report, I have entered records of the
existence of the fossil remains of this gigantic quadruped. ‘They are most
remarkable for their abundance in the drift along the east coast of England,
as at Robin Hood’s Bay near Whitby; at Scarborough, at Bridlington, and
various places along the shore of Holderness.
Mr. Woodward, in his ‘Geology of Norfolk,’ supposes that upwards of
two thousand grinders of the Mammoth have been dredged up by the fisher-
men off the little village of Happisburgh in the space of thirteen years. The
oyster-bed was discovered here in 1820, and during the first twelve months
hundreds of the molar teeth of Mammoths were dredged up. Great quan-
tities of the bones and tusks of the Mammoth are doubtless annually destroyed
by the action of the waves of the sea. Remains of the Mammoth are hardly
less numerous in Suffolk, especially in the pleistocene beds along the coast
and at Stutton; they become more rare in the fluvio-marine crag at South-
wold and Thorp. The village of Walton near Harwich is famous for the abun-
dance of these fossils, which lie along the base of the sea-cliffs, mixed with
bones of species of Horse, Ox and Deer.
Reference has already been made to other localities in Essex, as Clacton,
Grays, Ilford, Copford and Kingsland, where, in the freshwater deposits, the
remains of the extinct Elephant occur, associated with the above-mentioned
Herbivora, and with more scanty remains of Rhinoceros.
In the valley of the Thames they have been discovered at Sheppey, Wool-
wich, the Isle of Dogs, Lewisham; in the drift gravel beneath the streets of
the metropolis, as in Gray’s Inn Lane, twelve feet deep; in Charles Street,
near Waterloo Place, thirty feet deep.
Passing westward we encounter Mammoths’ remains at Kensington, at Brent-
ford, at Kew, and at Hurley-bottom, Wallingford near Dorchester; in the
gravel-pits at Abingdon and Oxford, and at Witham Hill and Bagley Wood*.
Bones of the great extinct Elephant again occur in the valley of the Medway,
at the Nore, at Chatham, and at Canterbury. On the south coast of England
they have been discovered at Brighton, Hove and Worthing; at Lyme Regis and
Charmouth ; also at Peppering near Arundel, about 80 feet above the present
level of the Arun. Passing inland from the south coast we find remains of the
Mammoth at Burton and Loders, near Bridport, and near Yeovil in Somerset.
At Whitchurch, near Dorchester, Dr. Buckland observes that the remains of
the Mammoth lie in gravel above the chalk, and are found in a similar posi-
tion on Salisbury Plain; they again occur at Box and Newton near Bath, and
at Rodborough in Gloucestershire.
Mr. Randall of Stroud has lately acquainted me, that in some recent rail-
way excavations in the neighbourhood of that town, tusks and molar teeth of
a Mammoth have been discovered in drift gravel from fourteen to twenty
feet below the surface: one of the tusks was recovered in a tolerably perfect
state, and measured 9 feet in length; it is in the possession of — Carpenter,
Esq., of Gannicox House, near Stroud.
In Worcestershire, on the borders of the Principality, remains of the Mam-
moth are noticed by Mr. Murchison as occurring in a gravel-pit south of East-
nor Castle. This pit is in the midst of a group of Silurian rocks, and the frag-
*® Dr. Kidd’s Geological Essays.
-
218 REPORT—1843.
ments consist exclusively of those rocks and of the sienite of the adjacent
hills, whence Mr. Murchison rightly infers that this extinct species of Ele-
phant formerly ranged over that country. In North Wales Pennant mentions
two molar teeth and a tusk found at Holkur, near the mouth of the Vale of
Clwyd, in Flintshire, and near Dyserth ; they occurred in a bed of drift gravel
containing pebbles of lead-ore, which are worked like the analogous stream-
works which contain pebbles and sand of tin-ore in Cornwall.
Bones of the Mammoth, with those of the Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus,
have been found in coarse gravelly drift with overlying marl and clay in the
valley of the Severn, at Fleet’s bank near Sandlin. Marine shells occur in
the coarse drift, and freshwater shells in the superficial fluviatile deposits.
My. Strickland found remains of the Mammoth associated with Hippopo-
tamus, Urus, &c. in the valley of the Avon, in apparently a local fluviatile
drift, containing land and freshwater shells: this geologist supposes that after
those parts of Worcestershire and Warwickshire had been long under the sea,
an elevation of some hundred feet converted them into dry land, and that a
river or chain of lakes then descending from the north-east, re-arranged
much of the gravel of the great northern glacial drift, disposing it in thin
strata and imbedding in it the shells of mollusks and the bones of the extinct
quadrupeds.
In the centre of England, Dr. Buckland notices the occurrence of the
Mammoth at Trentham in Staffordshire, in different parts of Northampton-
shire, and at Newnham and Lawford, near Rugby in Warwickshire ; there the
Mammoth’s bones lay by the side of those of the Rhinoceros and Hyena.
Mammoth-fossils oceur at Middleton in the Yorkshire Wolds, in Brands-
burton gravel-hills, and at Overton near York. Remains of the Mammoth,
valuable from the condition of the ivory of the tusks, have been discovered
at Atwick, near Hornsea, in the county of York.
In Scotland remains of the Mammoth have been found in the drift-clay
between Edinburgh and Falkirk, at Kilmuir in Ayreshire.
In Ireland remains of the Mammoth have been found at Maghery in the
county of Cavan, and in the drift near Tully-doly, county of Tyrone.
The celebrated cave at Kirkdale concealed remains of Mammoths: the
molars here detected were all of small size ; very few of them exceed 3 inches
in their longest diameter, and they must have belonged to extremely young
animals, which had been dragged in by the Hyznas for food with Rhinoce-
roses, Hippopotamuses, and large Ruminantia.
The molars of the Mammoth which I have hitherto seen from the cave
called Kent’s Hole near Torquay are of similar young specimens ; here they
are associated with the Hyzna, the great Cave Tiger, the Cave Bear, &c.:
and I entirely accede to Dr. Buckland’s explanation, that the bones or bodies of
these young Mammoths were dragged into the cave by the Carnivora which
coexisted with them.
Quitting the dry land and caves of Great Britain, we find the bed of the Ger-
man Ocean a most fertile depository of the remains of the Llephas primigenius,
and they are generally remarkable for their fine state of preservation,
Capt. Byam Martin, the harbour-master at Ramsgate, possesses several
well-preserved specimens which have been from time to time brought up by
the deep-sea nets of the fishermen, to whom this strange catching of elephants
instead of turbot is a matter of disappointment and often of loss. A fine lower
jaw of a young Mammoth, in the possession of Mr. G. B. Sowerby, was thus
dredged up off the Dogger Bank, and a femur and portion of a large tusk,
before described, were raised from 25 fathoms at low water, midway between
Yarmouth and the Dutch coast.
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 219
Remains of the Mammoth have also been raised in the British Channel
from the shoals called Varn and Redge, which lie midway between Dover
and Calais.
These, therefore, with the fishing-banks above mentioned in the German
Ocean, seem to be the furthest limits to which it is allowable to trace the re-
mains of lost species in a record of the British Fossil Mammalia.
Indications of the Physical Forces which operated on the unstratified drift
containing Bones and Teeth of the Mammoth.
The evidences of an enormous crushing and breaking power are very re-
markably exemplified in some of the Mammalian fossils from the ‘till’ or
drift at Walton in Essex. Mr. Brown of Stanway possesses molars of the
Mammoth from this locality which have been split vertically and lengthwise,
across all the component plates of dentine and enamel; other molars have
been so crushed and squeezed that the enamel-plates are shivered in pieces,
which are driven into the conglomerate of the different substances, and the
fragments of enamel stick out like the bits of glass from the plaster which caps
a garden wall.
The ramus of a lower jaw of a Rhinoceros from the drift near the
sea-coast of Essex, has been split vertically and lengthwise through all the
molars.
A similar condition of some of the mammalian fossil remains, including
parts of the Mammoth, discovered by Mr. Stutchbury in a cavernous fissure
at Durdham Down near Bristol, has been explained on the hypothesis of
considerable relative movement having taken place in the walls of the fissure
of the cavern since the deposit of the organic remains; and Mr. Stutechbury
adduces, in confirmation of this view, the fact, that a calcareous spar-vein in
the vicinity bears undoubted evidence of having been moved and recon-
structed.
Other forces than the concussion of rocks by earthquakes seem, however,
to have operated in producing the fractures of the teeth and bones in the
beds of Essex gravel or drift above adverted to; and I cannot suggest any
more probable dynamic, than the action of masses of ice, on the supposition
of such being chiefly concerned in the deposition and dispersion of the super-
ficial drift itself.
It is remarkable that the bones and teeth of the Elephant are very rarely
rolled or water-worn; the fractured surfaces are generally entire, and some-
times the bones are found, like that in the Ashmolean Museum, in a remark-
able state of integrity.
Genus Mastodon.
Remains of any species of this extinct genus are extremely rare in Great
Britain, and have been hitherto only found in those deposits consisting of
sand, shingle, loam and laminated clay, containing an intermixture of the
shells of terrestrial, freshwater and marine Mollusca, which extend along
the coast of Norfolk and Suffolk, and have been accurately described by Mr.
Lyell under the name of the ‘ Fluvio-marine Crag.’
The first fossil submitted to my examination by Mr. Lyell from this forma-
tion, referable to the genus Mastodon, was a small part of the left superior
maxillary bone containing the second true molar and the remains of the
socket of the one anterior to it. The molar was not distinguishable from
the corresponding one figured and described by Dr. Kaup in the magnificent
remains of the Mastodon named by him Jongirostris, which were discovered
in a similar fluvio-marine deposit at Epplesheim, Hesse-Darmstadt.
220 REPORT—1843.
At present, however, I have not been able to appreciate the distinction be-
tween the molar teeth of the Mast. longirostris, Kaup, and those of the
Mast. angustidens, Cuvier, the supposed specific distinction being, in fact,
afforded by the form and proportion of the lower jaw, which may prove to
be a sexual character. As the other molars of the Mastodon correspond
equally with the Mast. angustidens and Mast. longirostris, I shall refer them
to the species first defined by Cuvier. The British fossil above mentioned
was discovered by Mr. J. B. Wigham in 1838, in the fluvio-marine crag at
Postwick.
The first representation of any fossil relic of a Mastodon from British
strata was given by William Smith: it forms the frontispiece of his original
4to work, ‘ Strata identified by Organized Fossils, 1816. The fossil figured
is the last molar tooth of the left side of the upper jaw of the Mast. an-
gustidens, and was discovered in the fluvio-marine crag at Whitlingham, on
the right bank of the Yare, within five miles of Norwich. The crown of the
tooth supports five subalternate pairs of mammilloid cones, with a tuberculated
posterior ridge: the summits of the first three pairs of cones are worn down
by mastication, as in a corresponding molar of the Mast. angustidens from
Peru, figured by Cuvier in the ‘ Ossemens Fossiles,’ tom. i. Divers Masto-
dontes, pl. 1. fig. 6: the resemblance is extremely close.
Mr. Wigham likewise discovered a molar tooth of the Mast. angustidens
in one of the pits excavated in the fluvio-marine crag at Thorpe near Nor-
wich. Here, likewise, another molar tooth of the Mast. angustidens was found
by Mr. Fitch of Norwich. Detached molars, or fragments of molars of the
same species of Mastodon, have been discovered in the same formation, at
Horstead by the Rev. J. Gunn, at Bramerton by the late Mr. Woodward,
and at Easton cliff between Dunwich and Sizewell by Capt. Alexander, who
possesses likewise two specimens from the sea-shore, washed out of the same
fluvio-marine crag. Thus the not-long-since questionable occurrence of
genuine mastodontal remains in England is placed beyond doubt: they have,
hitherto, been exclusively found in a formation referable to the older pliocene
division of the tertiary period.
Genus Lhinoceros.
The remains of this genus are much more abundant in this country than
those of the Mastodon, and are associated in the more superficial strata with
the remains of the Mammoth; extending, however, like these, as low as the
fluvio-marine crag, but being more commonly found in caverns than are the
bones or teeth of the more bulky Mammoth.
Those fossils of the Rhinoceros from British formations, hitherto examined
by me and susceptible of satisfactory identification with determinate species,
belong to the great two-horned Rhinoceros tichorhinus of Cuvier, which is
associated in like manner with the Mammoth in Siberia. A few fossils have
yielded indications of a second species.
Cuvier says with respect to a portion of the lower jaw discovered in digging
a well at Thame in the county of Oxford, and formerly in the Leverian
Museum, that, judging from the figure given of it in Douglas's ‘ Dissertation
on the Antiquity of the Earth*,’ it seems to belong to the Rhinoceros lepto-
rhinus. Ihave not been able as yet to trace out this specimen, in order to
ascertain how far the original would confirm the conjecture of Cuvier.
The molar tooth from the fluvio-marine crag at Bramerton, preserved in the
Museum of Natural History at Norwich, has been supposed to belong to the
Rhinoceros leptorhinus ; it bears a closer resemblance to the corresponding
*® 4to, 1785.
i
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 991
molar of the Rh. Schleiermacheri of Kaup, but a solitary molar tooth is not
a very satisfactory ground for pronouncing absolutely of the species of Rhi-
noceros.
The most completeskeletons of one and the sameindividual have been found,
as might be expected, in caverns or cavernous fissures, where the carcass of
the fallen animal has been best protected from external changes and move-
ments of the soil.
Dr. Buckland has recorded one of the most remarkable examples of this
kind which was brought to light in the operation of sinking a shaft through
solid mountain limestone, in a mining operation for lead-ore near Wirks-
worth, Derbyshire. A natural cavern was thus laid open, which had become
filled to the roof with a confused mass of argillaceous earth and fragments
of stone, and had communicated with the surface by a fissure or opening
58 feet deep and 6 feet broad, similarly filled to the top, where the outlet
had been concealed by the vegetation. Near the bottom of this fissure, but
in the midst of the drift, and raised by many feet of the same material from
the floor of the cavern, was found nearly the whole skeleton of a Rhinoceros
with the bones almost in their natural juxtaposition: one part of the skull
which was recovered showed the rough surface forthe front horn; the back
part of the skull and one half of the under jaw were detached. All the bones
were in a state of high preservation. There were no supernumerary bones
to indicate the presence of a second Rhinoceros, but a few remains of Ru-
minants, apparently of extinct species.
A less proportion, but still a considerable one, of the skeleton of a ticho-
rhine Rhinoceros was discovered by Mr. Whidbey, Engineer of the Ply-
mouth Breakwater, in one of the cavernous fissures of the limestone quarries
at Oreston, near Plymouth: the following parts, most of which were determined.
and have been figured by Mr. Clift, were recovered and preserved :—
Two molar teeth of the upper jaw.
Four do. do. lower jaw.
Portion of the first vertebra, atlas.
Portions of four dorsal vertebre.
Portions of two caudal vertebre.
Portions of four ribs.
The symphysial end of an os pubis.
Portions of the right and left scapule.
Both articular extremities of the left humerus.
Do. do. right ulna.
Do. do. left radius. -
The right os unciforme.
The middle metacarpal bone of the right fore-foot.
A phalanx of the same toe.
Both articular extremities of the right femur.
Part of both extremities of the left femur.
The left patella.
A fragment of the left tibia.
Two portions of metatarsal bones of the right hind-foot.
The state of the epiphyses of the long bones indicate that the animal had
not quite reached maturity ; but in the same cavernous fissure there was found
part of the right humerus of an older individual of the Rhinoceros tichorhinus.
The broken bones have suffered from clean fractures; none of them are
gnawed or waterworn: the cavern containing them was 15 feet wide, 12 feet
high, 45 feet long ; it was filled with solid clay.
In similar and adjoining cavernous fissures, detached bones and teeth of
222 REPORT—1843.
the same extinct species of Rhinoceros were found: they were associated in
one of the fissures with remains of a large species of Deer and of the Ursus
speleus; in another fissure with fossil bones of Equus, Bos, Cervus, Ursus,
Canis, Hyena, and Felis spelea: none of the bones exhibit marks of having
been gnawed or broken by the teeth of the great cave-haunting Carnivora;
but both these and the herbivorous species appear to have perished by acci-
dentally falling into the cavernous fissures before these were filled up by the
mud, clay and drift.
The abundant remains of the Rhinoceros discovered in the cave at Kirk-
dale tell a very different history: they manifest, as Dr. Buckland has demon-
strated, abundant evidence of the action of the powerful jaws and teeth of
the Hyznas, whose copros and other vestigia prove that ancient cavern to
have been their habitual place of refuge. The fossil bones of the Rhino-
ceroses found in this cavern, as well as in that near Torquay, called Kent’s
Hole, belonged to animals which inhabited England during the period im-
mediately preceding the deposition of the unstratified drift, and they coexisted
with the Mammoth, Hippopotamus, huge Aurochs, Ox and Deer, which like-
wise became the occasional prey of the Hyzenas, whose dwelling-place was
thus converted into a kind of charnel-house of the large Herbivora.
The circumstances under which remains of the Rhinoceros have been dis-
covered in thé limestone caves of the Mendips, and in those on Durdham
Down, lead to similar explanations of their introduction.
The humerus of a Rhinoceros was discovered, associated with remains of
the Hyena spelea, in one of the caves in the carboniferous limestone at Cefn
in Denbighshire, at a height of about i00 feet above the present drainage of
the country.
Remains of the Rhinoceros were found associated with the entire under
jaw of the old Hyzna in the drift at Lawford near Rugby ; where likewise,
as has already been stated, fossils of the Elephas primigenius were found.
With regard to the most instructive remains from this locality, as, for ex-
ample, the cubitus, Cuvier expressly states that it belongs to the ‘ espéce
cloisonnée* ;’ and again, with regard to the ‘os innominatum,’ that it seems
to belong to the species with the osseous septum, viz. the Rhin. tichorhinus ;
and with regard to the tibia and the cervical vertebra, Cuvier confines his
observations to their differences as compared with the recent Rhin. Indicus
(p. 84), or to their want of sufficiently distinguishing characters, p. 76.
Cuvier expressly refers the two skulls of the Rhinoceros discovered in the
drift at Newhaven, 15 feet below the surface, to the Rhin. tichorhinus.
The teeth of the Rhinoceros from the cave at Kirkdale appear to me not
to be distinguishable from those of the Rhin. tichorhinus.
The finest and most entire specimens of the tichorhine Rhinoceros from
the superficial drift or freshwater formations are in the collection of John
Brown, Esq., of Stanway. He possesses the upper part of the skull, 29 inches
in length ; showing the rough elliptical surfaces for the attachment of the two
horns, and demonstrating more clearly than in any other British specimen,
the osseous septum of the nose which characterizes the present extinct species.
This specimen was discovered at Clacton : associated with it was a part of the
lower jaw with the anchylosed symphysis, the length of which is 2 inches
9 lines, and its breadth across the alveoli of the second molar teeth 4 inches.
Cuvier seems disposed to admit, from the testimony of Pallas, that the Rhz.
tichorhinus might have had small incisive teeth in the lower jaw: every
trace of their alveoli, if such had existed, have disappeared in the instructive
specimen above noticed.
* Ossem. Foss, t. ii. pt. i. p. 80.
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 923
A right ramus of the lower jaw of the same species of Rhinoceros, dis-
covered by Mr. Brown in the till at Walton in Essex, indicates, like the
molars of the Mammoth described in the former part of this report, the ac-
tion of enormous and peculiar forces posterior to their deposition in the
matrix: it has been split vertically and lengthwise through the seven molar
teeth which it contains, and in this clearly fractured state it was discovered
when first exposed in the till; and to obviate an unnecessary length in the
present report, I shall give the following citations of the discovery of the
remains of Rhinoceros in British strata, in a tabular form.
Museum. Locality. Stratum. Parts.
Norwich. Bramerton. Fluvio-marine crag. Molar tooth.
Miss Gurney. Mundesley. Lacustrine blueclay. Portion of lower
jaw with three
teeth.
Yorkshire. Bielbecks. Lacustrine blue clay. Molar teeth*.
Ld.Enniskillen. Maidstone. Beneath the gravel. Atlas, and other bones
Pleistocene. and teeth.
Mr. Flower. __Iiford. Pleistocene. Upper molar.
Do. Grays. Do. Lower molar.
Do. Ilford. Do. Femur.
Mr. Bossey. Wickham, Pleistocene. Upper jaw, and bones.
near Woolwich.
Brit. Mus. Drift near —_—_- Molar tooth, described
Canterbury by Grew, Rarities of
Gresham College,
pl. xix. fig.3.
Parkinson. Fox Hill, Drift. Molar teeth.
Gloucestersh.
Do. Chatham. Drift. Molar teeth.
Mr. Morris. Tiford. Pleistocene. Teeth.
Do. Erith. Do. Teeth and phalanges.
Do. Grays. Do. Teeth and bones.
Do. Harwich. Do. Bones.
Do. Kingsland. Do. Teeth.
Genus Hippopotamus.
Remains of this remarkable genus appear to have been first unequivocally
determined by Mr. Trimmer in a pleistocene formation at Brentford, over-
lying the London clay; they include several tusks, two lower incisors, an
entire molar and the fragment of a second, and were discovered after pene-
trating through nine feet of brick-earth and seven feet of sandy gravel, in a
stratum from one foot to nine feet deep of calcareous earth with freshwater
shells: here the remains of the Hippopotami were associated with those of the
Mammoth and of species of Deer. The locality is forty feet above the pre-
sent level of the Thames. Six of the Hippopotamuses’ tusks lay within an
area of 120 yards. These fossils are referred by Cuvier to the extinct species
which he has named Hippopotamus major.
Mr. Parkinson obtained from the till at Walton, in Essex, the following re-
mains of the Hippopotamus :—a right lower incisor, the upper extremity of
a lower canine, an anterior upper molar, and an ultimate lower molar tooth.
Dr. Buckland discovered molar teeth of the Hippopotamus in the Hyzena-
eave at Kirkland, whence he infers that this pachyderm, like the Rhinoceros
* The Bielbecks fossils, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Felis, Urus, &c, &c., are all mentioned in
Phillips’s Geol. of Yorkshire, vol. i. (2nd edition),
+ Philosophical Transactions, 1813.
224 REPORT—1843.
and Elephant, had been the prey of the Hyznas, which inhabited England
immediately preceding the formation of the drift.
The entire skull of a Hippopotamus, which was discovered in the drift-
gravel below a peat-bog in Lancashire, is figured by Lee in his Natural
History of that county.
Amongst the fossils of the Hippopotamus which I have personally examined
from British strata, one of the finest isa considerable portion of the lower
jaw, now in the museum of Miss Gurney, from the freshwater deposits over-
lying the fluvio-marine crag near Cromer. It contains six molars on one
side, which occupy an alveolar extent of 1 foot The first molar is se-
parated by an interval of 9 lines from the second. In. Lin.
The depth of the jaw at the third molar tooth is .......- 4 9
From the back part of the last socket to the under margin 9 0
of the descending angular process. ....-+.+-+++--
In the same rich collection there are several detached molar teeth of Hip-
popotamus from the same formation, a tusk 12 inches in length, and an
incisor of the upper jaw; all establishing the identity of the present species
with the Hippopotamus major of Cuvier, the remains of which occur in the
drift of various parts of continental Europe.
In the Yorkshire Museum there is a molar tooth of the Hippopotamus ma-
jor, from Overton near York.
In the Norwich Museum there is a tusk of the Hippopotamus major, which
was dredged up from the oyster-bank at Happisburgh : it is black and heavy,
being penetrated by iron.
Mr. Brown of Stanway possesses a portion of the tusk of the Hippopotamus
from the till at Walton in Essex ; it is referable to the Hippopotamus major :
remains of the same extinct species have been found at Grays and Harwich.
Remains of the Hippopotamus have been found in several of the limestone
caves in England besides that at Kirkdale; as, for example, at Kent’s Hole,
Torquay. Several teeth of the Hippopotamus were found, associated with
Mammoth, Rhinoceros, Aurochs, Ox, Hyzna, and Bear, in the cavern at
Durdham Down, recently described by Mr. Stutchbury.
Genus Lophiodon.
Prior to the year 1839, no fossils referable to any member of the Mammalian
class had been detected in the eocene formation called the London and plastic
clay. A fossil canine tooth brought up from a depth of 160 feet, out of the
plastic clay, while sinking a well in the neighbourhood of Maidstone, un-
equivocally establishes the fact that the genus Lophiodon has contributed to the
organic remains of that formation. For the opportunity of examining this
rare and interesting fossil I am indebted to Mr. Alport, who has recorded the
circumstances attending its discovery, with my note of identification, in his
interesting work, ‘ The Antiquities and Natural History of the Town of
Maidstone in Kent.’ The size of the canine tooth agrees with that in the
Lophiodon which Cuvier has called “La grande espéce d’Argenton,” ren-
dered by Fischer* Lophiodon Isselense, properly Isselensis. The matrix yield-
ing the original fossils of this species is a freshwater hard marl, full of the
shells of Planorbis and Lymnea, with remains of Crocodiles and Trionyces.
The corresponding formation at Binstead in the Isle of Wight belongs to
the eocene tertiary period, and has likewise furnished a fossil referable to the
genus Lophiodon, and by its size to the Loph. Isselensis. It is a median
phalanx of the right fore-foot, and was submitted to me as the bone of an
Iguanodon. There is, in fact, a considerable general resemblance between
the middle phalanges of this great herbivorous reptile and those of the larger
hoofed Mammals; but with respect to the fossil in question, the configura-
* Systema Mammalium, p. 413,
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 295
tion of the lateral surfaces for the attachment of the ligaments; the produc-
tion of the inferior border of the distal articulation into a process for the
insertion of the flexor tendon; and the greater curvature or portion of a
circle described by the distal articular extremity, which indicates a greater
extent and freedom of flexion and extension of the toe than the cold-blooded
reptiles possess; all prove the fossil to have belonged to the more agile,
warmer-blooded and higher organized Pachyderm. This fossil phalanx forms
part of the collection of the Marchioness of Hastings.
A fine fragment of the right ramus of the lower jaw, including the two
posterior molar teeth, of a large Lophiodon, was dredged up from the bottom
of the sea between St. Osyth and Harwich on the Essex coast. It is in the
possession of Mr. Brown of Stanway.
Genus Paleotherium. ,
Most of the British fossils referable to this genus have been obtained from
the freshwater eocene marls at Binstead or Seafield in the Isle of Wight. I
am indebted for the opportunity of determining the specimens here recorded
from this locality to Mr. S. P. Pratt, F.R.S., and the Rev. Darwin Fox.
They are as follows :—
Paleotherium magnum . . . Antepenultimate molar, upperjaw.
cots medium ... Posterior molar, lower jaw.
eyes Do. ..... Portionofditto ditto.
Basere Do. .... . Posterior molar, upper jaw.
et es Do. .... . Penultimate molar, upper jaw.
sesans Do. ..... Antepenultimate molar, upper jaw.
chee Do. .... . Anterior spurious molar.
fhe Do. ..... Crown of canine.
panes Do. .... . Complete incisor.
ests erassum ... Second molar, right side, lower jaw.
“FE curtum (?). . A molar tooth.
eases minus .... Portion of the base of the skull.
“tae Do. ..... Right ramus of the lower jaw with six grinders.
ia Do. ... .. Proximal end of the right radius.
Cenren Do. ..... Shaft and distal end of right tibia.
oh minimum .. Anterior molar tooth.
A shaft and distal articular end of a humerus, black, heavy and completely
mineralized, from the eocene clay at Hordwell Cliff, Hampshire, in the col-
lection of Mr. Wickham Flower, belongs to the genus Paleotherium, and
agrees in its size and proportions with the humerus of the Pal. crassum.
Mr. Wickham Flower likewise possesses an inferior molar tooth of a species
of Palezotherium, corresponding in size with the Pal. crassum, from the same
stratum and locality. /
Genus Anoplotherium.
The remains of this genus have hitherto been met with in Great Britain
only in the freshwater eocene deposits in the Isle of Wight, associated with
quadrupeds of the same extinct genera as those with which the Anoplotherium
was originally discovered by Cuvier in the eocene gypsum quarries at Mont-
martre. The British fossils consist of molar teeth referable to the Anoplo-
therium commune and A. secundarium.
Genus Dichobunes.
The most complete fossil referable to the Anoplotherioid family indicates a
species of the subgenus Dichobunes, differing from those therein placed by
Cuvier, and which I have named Dich. cervinum*. The fossil consists of the
* Geological Transactions, 2nd Series, vol. iii. p. 451, and iv. p. 44. Seealso Annals of
Philosophy, New Series, 1825, vol. x. p. 360.
1843. Q
226 REPORT—1843.
posterior half of the left ramus of the lower jaw with the three true molar
teeth: it was found in the lowest bed of the freshwater marl at Binstead.
Molar teeth of the same species of Dichobunes have been obtained by Mr.
Flower from Hordwell Cliff, associated with the Palgotherium crassum, and
with other lower organized Vertebrate fossils of the Eocene period, as Cro-
codilus Spenceri, Trionyx, Paleophis, Lepidosteus, &c.
Genus Charopotamus.
Cuvier had recognized amongst the fossil fragments extracted from the
gypsum at Montmartre, indications of extinet genera different from the Pa-
leotheria and Anoplotheria, and to one of the rarest and least satisfactorily
represented of these he gave the name of Cheropotamus. The fossil to be
here noticed not only extends, by its association with the Palotheria and
Anoplotheria, the analogies of the eocene marls of the Isle of Wight with
the gypsum beds at Paris, but affords additional information of the osteology
and dentition of the extinct genus, which is essential to the determination of
its exact affinities. The details of the comparisons illustrating this part of
the history of the Chceropotamus are given in my paper in the Geolagical
Transactions* ; they show that the extinct Chceeropotamus constituted one of
the numerous examples in paleontology of lost links in the chain of animated
nature, tending in the present case to connect the Pachydermata through the
Hog-tribe with the plantigrade Carnivora.
The fossil in question is the right ramus of the lower jaw, with all the
teeth in place except the second premolar and the incisors. It was discovered
by the Rev. D. Fox in the Seafield quarry, near Ryde, Isle of Wight.
Genus Hyracotherium.
The freshwater eocene marls of the Isle of Wight are much richer in mam-
malian remains than the contemporaneous formation called the London clay;
here, however, one genus, Lophiodon, has been found which exists in the
eocene gypsum in France, the remains of which also occur in the eocene
marls of the Isle of Wight; and the interesting fossil to be described in the
present section, although it indicates a genus not, hitherto, found in the older
tertiary beds on the continent, demonstrates the extinct quadruped of which
it formed part to have been as distinct generically, as the Anoplotherium or
Paleotherium, from any living Mammalia, and to have had the nearest affinity
to the Cheropotamus.
The fossil in question consists of a mutilated cranium about the size of that
of a hare, containing the molar teeth of the upper jaw nearly perfect and the
sockets of the canines. It was discovered in the London clay forming the
cliffs at Studd Hill, about a mile to the west of Herne Bay, by William
Richardson, Esq., who kindly gave me the opportunity and permission of
describing it.
The molars are seven in number on each side, and resemble more nearly
those of the Cheeropotamus than the molars of any other known genus of ex-
isting or extinct Mammalia. They consist of four premolars and three true
molars.
The first and second premolars, counting from before backwards, have
simple subcompressed crowns, surmounted by a single median conical cusp
with a small anterior and posterior tubercle at the outer side, and a ridge
along the inner side of its base: they are separated from each other by an
interspace nearly equal to the antero-posterior diameter of the first premolar,
which measures two lines and a half. The second and the remaining molars
* Geol. Trans. Second Series, vol, vi. p. 41.
-
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 927
are in close juxtaposition. The third and fourth premolars present a sudden
increase of size and of complexity of the grinding surface, with a correspond-
ing change of form. The plane or transverse section of the crown 1s sub-
triangular with the base outwards and nearly straight, the apex inwards and
a little forwards, rounded off, to which the anterior and posterior sides con-
verge in curved lines; the grinding surface supports three principal tubercles
or cusps, two on the outer and one on the inner side: there are two smaller
elevations, with a depression on the summit of each, situated in the middle of
the crown, and the whole is surrounded with a ridge, which is developed into
a small cusp at the anterior and external angle of the tooth. These teeth
form the principal difference between the dentition of the present genus and
that of the Chceropotamus, in which the corresponding false molars are rela-
tively smaller and of a simpler construction, having only a single external
pyramidal cusp, with an internal transverse ridge or talon at its base. The
true molars, three in number on each side, closely correspond in structure
with those of the Cheeropotamus. They present four principal conical tuber-
cles, situated near the four angles of the quadrilateral grinding surface.
Each transverse pair of tubercles is connected at the anterior part of their
base by a ridge, which is raised midway into a smaller conical tubercle with
an excavated apex. The crown of the tooth is surrounded by a well-marked
ridge, which is developed, asin the third and fourth false molars, into a sharp-
pointed cusp at the anterior and external angle of the tooth. The hindmost
molar is more contracted posteriorly, and its quadrilateral figure less regular
than the two preceding molars.
The sockets of the canines or tusks indicate that these teeth were relatively
as large as in the Peccari, and that they were directed downwards. The
temporal muscles were as well-developed as in the Peccari, the depressed sur-
face for their attachment extending on each side of the cranium as far as the
sagittal suture.
The frontal bones are divided by a continuation of the sagittal suture. The
nasal suture runs transversely across the cranium parallel with the anterior
boundary of the orbits. The lachrymal bone reaches a very little way upon
the face. The external angle of the base of the nasal bone, which is of con-
siderable breadth, joins the lachrymal, and separates the superior maxillary
from the frontal bone. The anterior margin of the malar bone encroaches a
little way upon the face at the anterior boundary of the orbit. The external
aperture of the sub-orbital canal is situated about three-fourths of an inch
from the anterior boundary of the orbit. The under surface of the palatal
processes of the maxillary bones is rugose, as in the Peceari; the portion of
the skull, including the intermaxillary bones and the incisive teeth, is unluckily
broken off and lost.
That the eye was full and large, is indicated by the size of the optic foramen
and the capacity of the orbit, the vertical diameter of which equals 1 inch.
The upper part of the cranium, anterior to the sagittal suture, is slightly
convex from side to side ; its longitudinal contour is nearly straight. The face
gradually becomes narrower anteriorly ; it is slightly concave at the sides.
The general form of the skull was probably intermediate in character be-
tween that of the Hog and the Myraz. The large size of the eye must have
given to the physiognomy of the living animal a resemblance to that of the
Hare and other timid Rodentia.
Without intending to imply that the present small extinct Pachyderm was
more closely allied to the Hyrax than as being a member of the same order,
and similar in size, I have proposed to call the new genus which it unques-
tionably indicates, Hyracotherium, with the specific name leporinum.
In the eocene sand underlying the red crag at Kingston or Kyson in
a2
228 REPOR1T—1843.
Suffolk, from which the remains of Quadrumana have been obtained*, Mr.
Colchester, the discoverer of those remains, has subsequently found the teeth
of small mammalian animals, some of which are referable to the genus Hy-
racotheriumt.
The teeth from Kyson are three true molars and one of the false molars,
all belonging to the upper jaw. The crowns of the true molars present the
same shortness in vertical extent, the same inequilateral, four-sided, transverse
section, and nearly the same structure, as in Hyracotherium leporinum ; the
grinding surface being raised into four obtuse pyramidal cusps, and sur-
rounded by a well-developed ridge, produced at the anterior and outer angle
of the crown into a fifth small cusp.
These teeth are, however, of smaller size, and differ in a point not expli-
cable on the supposition of their having belonged to a smaller individual or
variety ; for the ridge which passes transversely from the inner to the outer
cusp is developed midway into a small crateriform tubercle in the teeth of the
Hyracotherium leporinum, but preserves its trenchant character in the Hyrae.
Cuniculus, even in molars which have the larger tubercles worn down.
The premolar in the series of detached teeth from Kyson, which is either
the third or fourth, presents the same complication of the crown which distin-
guishes the Hyracotherium from the Cheropotamus, but with the same minor
modification which distinguishes the true molars of the Kyson species from
those of the Hyrac. leporinum of Herne Bay ; 7. e. the two ridges which con-
verge from the two outer tubercles towards the internal tubercle are not de-
veloped midway into the small excavated tubercle, as in the Hyrae. leporinum,
but are simple. The disparity of size between the true and false molars ap-
pears to be greater in the Hyrac. Cuniculus than in the Hyrac. leporinum.
This discovery of a second species of the genus Hyracotherium, which,
hitherto, has been found only in the London clay, tends to place beyond
doubt the equivalency of the Kyson sand, underlying the red crag, with the
eocene deposits at the estuary of the Thames.
I may add, that the collection of teeth and other small organic fragments
from the Kyson clay, which included the molars of the small extinct Pachy-
derm above described, likewise contained several vertebre of a serpent, agree-
ing in every respect, save size, with those of the Paleophis toliapicus from
the Isle of Sheppey.
Genus Sus.
When Cuvier communicated his memoir on the fossil bones of the Hog to
the French Academy in 1809, he had met with no specimens from formations
less recent than the mosses or turbaries and peat-bogs, and knew not that
any had been found in the drift associated with the bones of elephants. He
repeats this observation in the edition of the ‘Ossemens Fossiles’ in 1822;
but in the additions to the last volume published in 1825, Cuvier cites the
discovery, by M. Bourdet de la Nievre, of a fossil lower jaw of a Sus, on the
east bank of the lake of Neuchatel, and a fragment of the upper jaw from the
cavern at Sandwich, described by Goldfuss.
Dr. Buckland ¢ includes the molar teeth and a large tusk of a boar found
in the cave of Hutton in the Mendip Hills, with the true fossils of that re-
ceptacle, as the remains of the Mammoth, Spelzan Bear, &c. With respect
to cave-bones, however, it is sometimes difficult to produce conviction as
to the contemporaneity of extinct and recent species. MM. Croizet and
Jobert, in their account of the fossils of Auvergne, give more satisfactory
evidence of the coexistence of the genus Sus with Elephas, Mastodon, &c.,
by describing and figuring well-marked fossils of a species of Hog, which
* See Report of British Association for 1843.
+ Geological Transactions, 2nd Series, vol. vi. p. 203. t Relig. Diluviane, p. 59.
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 229
they discovered “au milieu de nos couches a ossemens,” in the midst of their
rich fossiliferous tertiary beds. These observers found, however, that the
facial part of their fossil Hog was relatively shorter than in the existing Sus
serofa, and they have conceived it to represent a distinct species, viz. the Sus
Avernensis. Dr. Kaup has described fossils referable to the genus Sus from
the miocene Epplesheim sand, in which they were associated with fossils of
the Mastodon and Dinotherium.
The oldest fossils of the genus Sus from British strata which I have yet
seen, are portions of the external incisor of the lower jaw, from fissures in
the red crag (probably miocene) of Newbourne near Woodbridge, Suffolk.
They were associated with teeth of an extinct Felis about the size of a leo-
pard, with those of a bear, and with remains of a large Cervus. These
mammalian remains were found with the ordinary fossils of the red crag ;
they had undergone the same process of trituration, and were impregnated
with the same colouring matter as the associated bones and teeth of fishes
acknowledged to be derived from the regular strata of the red crag. These
mammaliferous beds have been proved by Mr. Lyell to be older than
the fluvio-marine or Norwich crag, in which remains of the Mastodon, Rhi-
noceros and Horse have been discovered; and still older than the freshwater
Pleistocene deposits from which the remains of the Mammoth, Rhinoceros,
&c. are obtained in such abundance.
I have met with some satisfactory instances of the association of fossil
remains of a species of Hog with those of the Mammoth in the newer plio-
cene freshwater formations of England.
In the collection of Mr. Wickham Flower there are good specimens of the
teeth of the Hog (molars, and a long and sharp tusk), which were taken from
the brick-earth at Grays in Essex, twenty feet below the present surface ; these
teeth were associated with teeth and bones of a deer, and portions of dark
charred wood. Mr. Brown of Stanway has likewise some fossil remains of
a young specimen of Sus from the freshwater deposits at Grays.
A left upper tusk of a Boar from the Pleistocene beds near Brighton pre-
sented a broader longitudinal internal strip of enamel than in those tusks of
the Wild Boar of Europe or India which I had for comparison ; the longitu-
dinal groove along the unenamelled part was deeper.
These instances of fossil remains of the Hog tribe are, however, very rare.
The usual situation of bones of the Hog is that mentioned by Cuvier in peat-
bogs. In the Norwich Museum there is the anterior part of the lower jaw of
a Hog, which was found four or five feet below the surface in peat-bog upon
drift-gravel.
A molar tooth with the upper and lower tusks of a Wild Boar have been
found, associated with remains of the Wolf, Beaver, Goat, Roebuck, and large
Red-deer in freshwater marl, underlying a bed of peat 10 feet thick, itself
covered in some places by the same thickness of shell-marl and alluvium, at
Newbury, Berkshire.
In the most recent deposits where the remains of the Hog are usually met
with, their identity with the Sus scrofa is unequivocal.
I have received from Dr. Richardson a collection of bones, not much altered
by time, from a gravel-pit in Lincolnshire, near the boundary between the
parishes of Croft and Ikeness ; among these were remains of the common Hog.
The tusks and molar teeth of a Boar which were discovered, ten feet be-
low the surface of a peat-bog, near Abingdon, Berkshire, were associated
with quantities of hazel-nuts in a blackened or charred state, the whole
‘resting on a layer of sand which was traced extending eighteen feet hori-
zontally.
The anterior part of the left ramus of the jaw of a Hog has been obtained
from the drift formation at Kesslingland, Suffolk.
230 REPORT—1843.
Genus Equus.
In England, as on the Continent, remains of the genus Eguus attest that a
species equalling a middle-sized Horse, and one of the size of an Ass, or
Zebra, have been the associates of the Mammoth, Rhinoceros, and other ex-
tinct quadrupeds whose remains are so generally dispersed in the drift forma-
tions, bone-caves, and the newer tertiary deposits. Almost every geological
author who has had occasion to notice the mammalian fossils of these recent
periods has made mention of such a combination. It has been observed by
Dr. Mantell* in the ‘Elephant-bed” at Brighton; by Mr. Clift+ in the caver-
nous fissures at Oreston; by Dr. Bucklandt in the ossiferous caves at Kirk-
dale, in the Mendips and at Paviland; by Mr. Lyell§ in the tertiary de-
posits on the Norfolk coast; by Col. Hamilton Smith|| in the bone-caves
near Torquay; and by Mr. Morris] in the mammaliferous deposits in the
valley of the Thames, as at Wickham, Ilford, Erith, Grays and Kingsland.
No critical anatomical comparison appears hitherto to have been instituted
with regard to the relations of these equine fossils with the existing species.
That the fossils vary in size amongst themselves has been more than once
noticed ; and Dr. Buckland makes a remark** expressive of his suspicion that
they belonged to more than one species.
The largest-sized fossil Hquus from British strata is indicated by a molar
tooth, the second of the left side, lower jaw, obtained by Mr. Lyell from a
bed of laminated blue clay, with pyrites, eight feet thick, overlying the Nor-
wich crag at Cromer, where it was associated with remains of the Mammoth,
Rhinoceros, Bos, Cervus, and Trogontherium. The antero-posterior dia-
meter of this tooth was 1 inch 4-10ths, equalling that in the largest dray-
horses of the present day: other corresponding fossil teeth of Hguus have
measured in the same diameter | inch 2-10ths, and 1 inch. The intermediate
size, which equals that of the teeth of a horse of between fourteen and fifteen
hands high, is the most common one presented by fossils. A middle upper
molar tooth from Kent’s Hole, Torquay, indicates a horse as large as that
from the blue clay at Cromer, but the size of the fossil species would be
incorrectly estimated from the analogy of the teeth alone. Although the
equine fossils are far from rare, yet they have hitherto in England been
always found more or less dispersed or insulated, and no opportunity has
occurred of ascertaining the proportions of one and the same individual by the
comparison of an entire skeleton with that of the existing species of Bguus.
The hest-authenticated associations of bones of the extremities with jaw
and teeth, clearly indicate that the fossil Horse had a coarser and larger head
than in the domesticated races ; resembling in this respect the Wild Horses
of Asia described by Pallastt,and in the same degree approximating the
Zebrine and Asinine groups.
It is well known that Cuvier failed to detect any characters in the skele-
tons of the different existing species of Equus, or in the fossil remains of the
same genus, by which he could distinguish them ; except by their difference
of size, which yields but a vague and unsatisfactory approximation.
The second and third molars of both jaws in every fossil specimen of these
teeth which I have examined, are narrower transversely in comparison with
their antero-posterior diameter than in the existing horse; and a similar cha-
racter appears to have been recognized by M. H. v. Meyer in the fossil
equine teeth from continental localities, since he cites the Equus angustidens
* Fossils of the South Downs, 4to. 1822, p. 283. T Phil. Trans. 1823, p. 86.
t Reliquiz Diluviane, pp. 18, 75. § Phil. Mag. vol xvi. (1840), pp. 349, 362.
|| Naturalist’s Library, Horses, p. 63. 4 Mag. of Nat. History, 1838, p. 539.
** Loc. cit. p. 75, with respect to the equine remains discovered in the Oreston caverns :—
“ Horses about twelve, of different ages and sizes, as if from more than one species.” _
Tf Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica, tom. i. p, 255.
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 231
as a synonym of the species which he subsequently described under the
name of Equus asinus primigenius*.
Amongst the numerous teeth of a species of Equus, as large as a horse
fourteen and a half hands high, collected from the Oreston cavernous fissures,
I have found specimens clearly indicating two distinct species, so far as spe-
cific differences may be founded on well-marked modifications of the teeth.
One of these, like the ordinary Equus fossilis of the drift and pleistocene
formations, most resembles the existing Hguus caballus in its dental cha-
racters; the other, in the more complex and elegant plication of the enamel,
and in the bilobed posterior termination of the grinding surface of the last
upper molar, more closely approximates the extinct Horse of the miocene
period which H. v. Meyer has characterized under the name of the Equus
caballus primigeniust. The Oreston remains differ, however, from this in the
form of the fifth or internal prism of dentine in the upper molars, and in its
continuation with the second anterior prism; the fifth prism being oval and
insulated in the Equus primigenius of V. Meyer.
The Oreston fossil teeth, which in their principal characters manifest so
close a relationship with the miocene Equus primigenius, differ like the
later drift species (4g. fossilis) from the recent Horse, in a greater propor-
tional antero-posterior diameter of the crown of the second upper molar, and
also in a less produced anterior angle of the first molar. In neither of the
fossil species is the entire tooth so much curved as in the extinct Hguus cur-
videns, nob., the contemporary of the Megatherium in South America.
The more common species of fossil Horse from the drift formations and
ossiferous caverns, which differs from the existing domestic Horse in its
larger proportional head and jaws, resembling in that respect the Wild Horse,
but apparently differing in the transversely narrower form of certain molar
teeth, may continue to be conveniently indicated by the name of Eguus
Jossilis, as Cuvier’s “ cheval fossile” has been translated by M. H. v. Meyert.
Of this species, the largest bone of an extremity which I have seen, is a se-
cond phalanx from the upper pliocene deposits at Walton-on-Naze, Essex,
where it was discovered by Mr. Brown of Stanway; it measures 2 inches 8
lines in extreme breadth, and 2 inches 4 lines in length. The correspond-
ing bones from Oreston are smaller.
The contemporary but distinct species, indicated by the teeth above de-
scribed from the Oreston caverns, I propose to name Eguus plicidens, on
account of the characteristic plications of the enamel-island in the centre of
the molar teeth. I have not yet seen any teeth from British strata having
the well-marked characters of those of the Equus caballus primigenius of
M. H. v. Meyer; but the teeth of the extinct slender-legged Horse, trans-
mitted by Capt. Cautley to the British Museum, are identical with those of
the above species from the European miocene.
Tn the more recent or diluvial formations, a fossil species of Equus, smaller
than any of the preceding, and about the size of the Wild Ass, is indicated
by molar teeth. Of these I may cite a middle molar of the left side of the
upper jaw, from the drift overlying the London clay at Chatham; a corre-
Pine molar from the opposite side of the upper jaw, from the drift at
esslingland in Suffolk ; and a fifth molar, left side of lower jaw, from a ca-
vernous fissure at Oreston: all these teeth were in the same fossilized con-
dition as the associated remains of extinct Mammals with which they had
clearly been contemporaneous. If we admit the subgeneric separation of those
species of the genus Hguus, Cuv., that have callosities on the fore-legs only,
the tail furnished with a terminal brush of long hair, and a longitudinal dor-
sal line, the last indicated fossil species may be named Asinus fossilis.
* Palzologica, p. 80. { Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Curios. tom. xvi. p. 448.
{ Palzologica, p. 79.
932 REPORT—1843.
Several bones of a large Ass were associated with the teeth of the Wild
Boar above mentioned, from the marl beneath the peat formation at Newbury,
Berks.
I have been favoured with the following notes of the discovery of fossil
teeth of a species of Eguus in Ireland, by John Thompson, Esq. of Belfast.
In sinking a well near Downpatrick, in the county of Down, two teeth were
found in a stratum of gravel far below the present surface. A tooth was
found at Newry under similar circumstances. In the county of Antrim teeth
of the Horse have been found four feet below the surface in drift gravel near
Belfast, and at the bottom of a turf-bog near Broughshane.
Order RuMINANTIA.
Family Bovipz.
Subgenus Urus*.
Urus priscus, Fossil Aurochs.
The former existence of a gigantic species of this subgenus is unequivo-
cally established by fossil remains of the cranium and horn-cores from various
newer tertiary freshwater deposits, especially in Kent and Essex.
One of these specimens was dug out of astratum of dark-coloured clay be-
low layers of. brick-earth and gravel, thirty feet below the surface, at Wool-
wich ; it presents the broad convex forehead, the advanced position of the
horns, which rise three inches anterior to the upper occipital ridge, and the
obtuse-angled junction of the occipital with the coronal or frontal surface of
the skull, all which characters distinguish that part of the skeleton of the
Aurochs. The bony cores of the horns extend outwards, with a slight curva-
ture upwards: from the mid-line between their bases to the extremity of one
core, in a straight line, measures 2 feet 5 inches.
Another specimen of the fossil cranium of the Urus, dug out of a brick-
field at Ilford in Essex, presents, with the same essential characters as the
preceding, relatively thicker, shorter and more curved horn-cores. This fossil
in the shorter horns differs from the preceding, as the American Bison or Ass
differs from the European Aurochs; but in the absolute length of the horns
it resembles the European Aurochs: it may indicate the female Urus priscus.
A broken skull with perfect horn-cores of the Urus priscus, discovered by
Mr. Strickland in the freshwater drift at Cropthorne, Worcestershire, yields
the following dimensions: from tip to tip of the horn-cores, following the
anterior curves, 3 feet 8 inches; the same in a straight line, 3 feet 4 inches.
Hitherto no fossil skeleton of the same individual has been discovered in a
state of such completeness as to enable the anatomist to ascertain the number
of the ribs; a fact which would be of singular importance in determining the
relations of the ancient British Aurochs, since the European existing Wild
Aurochs has fourteen pairs, and the American Aurochs or Bison has fifteen
pairs, whilst all the varieties of Ox and Buffalo have but thirteen pairs of ribs.
The number of the true vertebra is however the same in all the Bovine ani-
mals, the costal or dorsal being increased at the expense of the lumbar series
in the subgenus Urus. Cuvier expresses his opinion of the importance of a
precise knowledge of the formations containing remains of the great fossil
Aurochs, and regrets that the information on this point is somewhat vague.
The brick-earth from which the two specimens of fossil Aurochs above-cited
were found, underlies a layer of sand with pebbles and concretions, containing
shells of Unio and Cyclas; and the remains of both Mammoth and Rhinoceros
are unquestionably associated with those of the Aurochs in this formation.
The other localities which may be cited, from the less certain character of the
* Bos Urus, Linn., but not the Urus of the ancients, which Cuvier regards as the true
original of our domestic cattle.
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 233
proportion of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones—those of the slenderest
proportions being referred to the Aurochs,—are Brentford, Wickham, Ilford,
Erith, Woolwich, Grays, Whitstable, Gravesend, Copford, and Clacton.
Prof. Phillips has recorded the discovery of the skull with the cores of the
horns and the teeth of the great Aurochs at Beilbecks in his ‘Geology of York-
shire,’ vol. i. 2nd edition, accompanied by land and freshwater shells, and by
remains of the Mammoth, Rhinoceros, Felis, large Horse, large Deer, Wolf, &c.
Subgenus Bos.
Bos primigenius, Bojanus. Beuf’ fossile, Cuvier. -
The fortunate discovery of the cranium and horn-cores of this great extinct
species in drift and recent tertiary deposits in this country, has enabled me to
enter it without hesitation in the list of British Fossil Mammalia, and at the
same time to determine its equal antiquity with the Aurochs. The charac-
ters of the Bos primigenius, as contrasted with the Urus priscus, may be
advantageously studied in the magnificent specimen of an almost entire ske-
leton discovered in the drift overlying the London clay at Herne Bay, and
now in the collection of Mr. Wickham Flower. The concave forehead with
its median longitudinal ridge ; the origin of the horns at the extremities of the
sharp ridge which divides the frontal from the occipital regions; the acute
angle at which these two surfaces of the cranium meet to form the above
ridge, all identify this specimen with the Bos primigenius described by Cuvier*,
Bojanust+ and Fremery{. The cores of the horns bend at first slightly back-
ward and upward, then downward and forward, and finally inward and up-
ward, describing a graceful double curvature: they are tuberculate at the
base, moderately impressed by longitudinal grooves, and irregularly perfo-
rated: the length of each horn-core along the outer curve is 3 feet 3 inches;
the circumference of the core at its base 18 inches 10 lines; the longest dia-
meter of the base 63 inches ; the chord of the are described by the core is
7z inches ; from the middle line of the forehead to the tip of the core is 2
feet 2 inches.
The length of the lower jaw of this specimen is 1 foot 8 inches ; that of the
series of molar teeth is 7 inches. All the true vertebree except the atlas ap-
pear to have been recovered, and they include the six remaining cervical
vertebre ; thirteen dorsal and six lumbar vertebre; thus yielding another
important character by which this great primeval Ox agrees with the do-
mestic species of the present day. One of the dorsal vertebra which retains
its spinous process measures 1 foot 7 inches in height; a development not
greater than might have been expected for the support of the head and horns.
One of the scapule shows a diseased external surface, ossific inflammation ha-
ving extended from two depressions in the bone, provably inflicted by the horns
of another bull in conflict. The metacarpal bones give additional exemplifica-
tions of the true Bovine character of the present extinct species, by their
stronger proportions as compared with those of the Aurochs; the length of
one being 10 inches, and its circumference 5} inches.
' Mr. Brown of Stanway has recorded his discovery, in a mass of drift-sand
overlying the London clay at Clacton on the Essex coast, of the frontal part
of the cranium, with the cores of the horns of a large Bovine animal, which,
from the direction and degree of curvature of the horns, agrees with the fossil
Bos primigenius. Each core measured 3 feet along the outer curve from the
base to the tip; the chord of the arc of such curve being 8 inches: the dia-
meter of the base was 6 inches in one direction and 5 inches in the other. With
these parts of the Bos primigenius was found a perfect Mammoth’s tooth, 11
inches in length, 8 inches in depth, and 3 inches across the grinding surface.
* Ossem. Foss. iv. p. 150. t Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Cur. xiii. pt. 2.
¢ N. Verh, Koninkl.-Nederlandsch Instituut, Derde Deel, 1831.
234 REPORT—1843.
The most complete skull of the Bos primigenius is that of which the dis-
covery is recorded in the Bath and Cheltenham Gazette for June 26, 1838.
The specimen was obtained from the bed of the river Avon, at Melksham,
Wilts, and it gives a distinctive character of the present subgenus which
could not be deduced from the former specimens on account of their fractured
state, viz. the greater length of the frontal region in proportion to its breadth,
as compared with that part of the skull of the Urus.
Cuvier states with regard to fossil remains of the Bos primigenius, “il
s’en trouve en Angleterre,” apparently on the authority of drawings trans-
mitted to him by Mr. Crow.
Mr. Parkinson* refers his specimens of Bovine fossils dug up in Dumfries-
shire to the Bos primigenius, but without assigning the grounds for this
choice. Cuvier himself devotes a distinct section to the detached fossil
bones of the trunk and extremities of the Bovine tribe, expressing his regret
at the numerous sources of uncertainty and difficulty attending their deter-
mination when unassociated with the skull ; whilst he acknowledges the great
importance of ascertaining the species of Bovide to which the bones from
each stratum belonged ; whether, for example, an Aurochs, an Ox, or a Buf-
falo had been the companion of the Elephants, Rhinoceroses, &c. which for-
merly lived in climates of Europe. At the period of the publication of the
second edition of the ‘Ossemens Fossiles’ (1823), no authentic example had
been recorded of a cranium of either Urus priscus or Bos primigenius in
strata containing bones of the Mammoth and Rhinoceros ; and this statement
is repeated in the posthumous edition of the ‘Ossemens Fossiles,’ 8vo, 1835.
The two examples above cited of crania of the Urus priscus from newer
pliocene freshwater deposits in Kent and Essex, leave no reasonable doubt
that a large Aurochs was the associate of the gigantic Pachyderms, whose re-
presentatives at the present day have the Buffalos for their companion in the
tropical swamps and forests. It is true that species of true Bos are found
wild in the warmer parts of Asia; but no true Aurochs has been discovered
within the tropics. The great fossil Urus was likewise associated with as
large a species of Bos in England during the period antecedent to the de-
position of the drift.
To determine to which subgenus of Bovide detached teeth, vertebra,
ribs and other bones of the skeleton belonged, is still attended with much
difficulty ; such remains, however, sufficiently attest that species as large as
the Urus priscus and Bos primigenius were very extensively distributed
throughout England: they have been found in almost all the drift and cave
localities, and in the newer tertiary deposits that have been cited in the fore-
going part of the present report as yielding the fossil remains of Elephas;
Rhinoceros, Hyena and Ursus.
Cuvier} affirms, as the result of his numerous comparisons of the recent
and fossil bones of the Bovine animals, that the detached bones resemble each
other too much to yield certain specific characters, and that it is necessary to
have skulls in order to determine the species. I have however noticed a cha-
racter in a few fossil metatarsal bones of different sizes from the cavernous
fissures at Oreston, and from the freshwater tertiary deposits in Essex, which
I have not observed or found recorded in any known existing species of the
Bovine family, and which would serve easily and unequivocally to determine
the fossil species if once these bones could be found in such connexion or
juxtaposition with a cranium as to justify the conclusion that they belonged
to the same skeleton with such cranium. At present, unfortunately, this
link, essential to a reference of the bones in question to their true subgenus,
is wanting, and I can only cite them with a notice of the peculiar character
* Organic Remains, vol. iii, p. 325. + Ossem. Foss, iy. p. 140.
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 235
adverted to, in the hope that some fortunate ulterior discovery may determine
whether they belong to a species of Aurochs ( Urus), or of Ox (Bos), or some
other subgenus of a Bovine family.
The character in question is an unusual prominence of the inner border of
the anterior groove for the extensor tendon which traversed the middle of that
surface of the metatarsal bone, bending the groove obliquely outward; it is
well shown in a large fossil metatarsal bone, heavily impregnated with iron,
from the freshwater formation at Clacton, Essex, and now in the collection of
Mr. Brown. I should perhaps have regarded this production of a ridge
of bone as due to ossific inflammation, had not two fossil metatarsal bones
of a smaller Bovine animal, from the cavernous fissures at Oreston, presented
the same character. Both these metatarsals and the larger one from Clacton
present more slender proportions than those of the Bos primigenius, and in
the same degree approach the genus Urus.
Bos longifrons.
This species belongs to the subgenus Bos, by the form of the forehead and
the origin of the horns from the extremities of the upper occipital ridge, but
is distinguished from the Bos primigenius by its much smaller size, its much
shorter horns in proportion to its size, and by its longer and narrower fore-
head. The horns have a simple curvature forward, and a little downward.
Remains of this species were first described by Robert Ball, Esq., Secretary
to the Zoological Society of Dublin, in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Aca-
demy for January 1839, as indicating “a variety or race differing very re-
markably from any previously described in works with which the author was
acquainted.” They consisted principally of parts of the skull with the horn-
cores, which had been found at considerable depths in bogs in Westmeath,
Tyrone and Longford.
One of the specimens from Westmeath gives the following admeasure-
ments :— In. Lines.
Length from the supra-occipital ridge to the nasal bones.... 8 0
Breadth of the skull between the roots of the horns ...... 5 5
Breadth of the skull across the middle of the orbits........ 6 5
Circumference of base of horn-core ............ Tare sweats 4 3
Length following outer curvature .......... 00200000005 36
In the Hunterian collection there is a frontlet and horn-core of the same
species likewise obtained “ from a bog in Ireland.” Had no other localities
for the Bos longifrons been known, it might have been held to be of later
date than the Bos primigenius and Urus priseus, of whose existence as the
contemporaries of the Mammoth and tichorhine Rhinoceros we have the
most satisfactory evidence; I have however been so fortunate as to ascertain,
in the survey of the collections of Mammalian Fossils in the Eastern Counties,
indubitable specimens of the Bos longifrons from freshwater deposits, which
are rich in the remains of Hlephas and Rhinoceros.
A specimen of the back part of the cranium and horn-cores in the collec-
tion of Mr. Brown of Stanway, obtained by that gentleman from the fresh-
water deposits at Clacton on the Essex coast, gives the admeasurement from
the supra-occipital ridge to the upper margin of the foramen magnum, which
is 3 inches 9 lines; the breadth of the skull between the roots of the horns
is 5 inches.
A fossil frontlet and horn-cores of the Bos longifrons, from a similar fresh-
water of the newer pliocene period, at Walton, presents the same characters
as the specimens from below the Irish bogs, and it is interesting to find that
remains of the gigantic Deer (Megaceros) are associated with the Bos longi-
frons in the English freshwater deposits, as in the under-bog marls in Ireland.
236 REPORT—1843.
Remains of the Bos longifrons occur in the freshwater drift at Kensington,
associated with those of the Mammoth.
The above-described vontemporaneous fossil remains of Bovine animals
from the British newer tertiary and drift formations clearly establish the im-
portant fact, that species of that subgenus, to which belong the domesticated
races of the Ox, are as ancient as those of the subgenus Urus, now represented
by the great Aurochs of the Lithuanian forests ; and that the distinguishing
characters of that wild race have not needed to be modified to produce the
domestic breed, since wild species of Bos, as distinct as the domestic Ox now
is from the Lithuanian Aurochs, coexisted with a gigantic species of Urus
during the later tertiary periods of geology.
Genus Capra.
Frequent evidence of the smaller ruminating animals is afforded by fossil
jaws, teeth and detached bones of the skeleton, and in a few cases by the
characteristic appendages of the skull—horns or antlers, which then serve to
identify the species or the genus of such fossils.
A fragment of a lower jaw, containing one of the lateral series of six molar
teeth, with a part of the skull having the perfect cores of the horns attached,
was discovered by Mr. Brown in the newer pliocene deposits at Walton in
Essex: these fossils were in the same condition as the bones of the large
extinct Mammalia from the same formation. The jaw and teeth agreed in
size and configuration with the same parts in the common Goat, and also
in the Sheep; and the highly interesting question, which of these had ex-
isted contemporaneously with the Mammoth and Rhinoceros, was satisfac-
torily determined by the cranial fragment: in its shape and size, and espe-
cially in the character of the cores of the horns, which were 2 inches in
length, subcompressed, pointed, directed upwards, with a slight bend out-
wards and backwards, it closely agreed with the common Goat (Capra Hir-
cus), and with the short-horned female of the Wild Goat (Capra Aigagrus),
the probable origin of the half-domesticated Goat of Europe.
Whether the Capra 4gagrus or the Capra Ibex should be regarded as
the stock of our domestic breed, has long been a question among naturalists;
the weighty argument which may be drawn from the character of the wild
species which was contemporary with the Bos primigenius and Bos longifrons,
is shown by the present fossil to be in favour of the Capra A?gagrus.
Genus Cervus,
Subgenus Capreolus.
In the collection of British fossils belonging to Mr. Purdue of Islington,
there is an entire left ramus of the lower jaw of a small Ruminant, identical
in size and conformation with that of the Roebuck (Cervus Capreolus). It
was found in a lacustrine deposit of marl, with freshwater shells, below the bed
of peat, at Newbury in Berkshire. «Antlers of the Roebuck have been found
at ten feet deep below the fen-land of Cambridgeshire. The characteristic
antlers, with portions of the jaws and teeth of the Roebuck, have been found
in the bone-caves in Pembrokeshire, and in the neighbourhood of Stoke-
upon-Trent. I have been favoured with specimens from the limestone caverns
of the latter locality by Robert Garner, Esq., the author of the ‘ History of
Staffordshire. Almost the entire skeleton of a small Ruminant, agreeing in
size and general characters with the female Roe, has been discovered in the
lacustrine formation at Bacton, with the remains of the Trogontherium,
Mammoth, &e.
Subgenus Elaphus.
A large round-antlered Stag, nearly allied to, if not a variety of, the existing
Red Deer (Cervus Elaphus, Linn.), was the associate of the great Aurochs,
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 237
the Mammoth and the Rhinoceros, and its fossil remains have been discovered
in almost all those formations and localities which have yielded those of the
before-mentioned extinct Mammals. :
The oldest stratum yielding evidence of a Cervus of the size of the Red
Deer, is the Miocene Red Crag at Newbourne, and remains of this species
attest its existence through intermediate strata up to the period of the for-
mation of the turbaries and peat-bogs.
Dr. Buckland makes mention of the discovery of an entire skull of a Deer,
in the bone-cave at Paviland, as large as a Red Deer, but of a different
species. The rounded base of a shed antler, measuring 3 inches in dia-
meter above the brow-antler, and sending forwards the second or bezantler
within three inches of the former, indicates a species of the Elaphine group,
equalling the Cervus Megaceros in the size of the beams of the antler; and
therefore, from the known proportions of the body to the antlers in the Red
Deer, probably exceeding that great extinct species from the Irish bogs in
size, and at least equalling the Wapiti Deer (Cervus Canadensis, Brisson).
The fossil in question was found in Kent’s Hole, where also remains of the
Megaceros occur.
Subgenus Dama.
Antlers slightly palmated, most nearly resembling those of the Fallow
Deer (Cervus Dama, Linn.), with teeth, portions of jaws and other bones
agreeing in size with those parts in the Fallow Deer, have been found in
several of the newer tertiary deposits and the bone-caves of England, asso-
ciated with the usual extinct Mammalia. I received similar remains with the
tusks of the Wild Boar from the marl under the peat-moss at Newbury.
The lower jaw of a Deer, about the size of the Fallow, occurs in the plio-
cene at Bacton.
Subgenus Megaceros.
Megaceros Hibernicus.
The most remarkable of the unquestionably extinct species of the Cervine
family is that which is commonly called the Irish Elk. The most abundant
and the most perfect examples of this noble animal have been furnished by
the bogs of Ireland, where they occur below the peat in the lacustrine marl,
but the species is by no means peculiar to Ireland ; an entire skeleton havmg
been found in the newer pliocene deposits in the Isle of Man, and charac-
teristic portions of the skeleton and antlers in freshwater deposits of a cor-
responding age, and in some of the bone-caves of England.
Dr. Molyneux*, the original describer of the antlers of the Megaceros,
points out their distinction from the true Elk, and the true affinities of the
extinct species have been more exactly determined by Cuvier and later
anatomists.
The rounded beam of the antler expands, sooner than in the true Dama,
into a broad palm, which sends off all the processes or snags, save one, from
its anterior border, in which respect Megaceros differs from Dama and re-
sembles Alces ; it differs from the Elk in having one posterior branch or ‘spil-
ler,’ and more especially in having both brow-antler and. bezantler. The
Reindeer (Rangifer) makes the nearest approach to the Megaceros in the
large development of the antlers, but the extinct species far surpasses all known
Cervide in the enormous proportions of the antlers as compared with the
skull. In the occasional bifurcation of the expanded end of the brow-antler
it again approximates the characters of the Reindeer (Rangifer), but does
not push its affinity to this genus so far as to have antlers developed in both
sexes, as Cuvier suspected.
* Philos, Trans. vol. xiv, p. 489.
238 REPORT—1843.
My friend Col. Hamilton Smith, the founder of the subgeneric divisions of
the Linnean Cervus, has referred the gigantic Deer of Ireland to the section
Dama, or the Fallow Deer* ; but the peculiar proportions and modifications
of the antlers of the extinct species in question afford as good grounds for a
special subgenus for its reception, as those on which the subgenus Dama
itself has been proposed.
I subjoin the following dimensions of the skull and antlers of a few of the
most perfect specimens that have come under my notice :—
No. 1, ft. in. No. 2, ft. in. No, 3, ft. in.
Pe hoy 9 RE Oe apy ere ey etree alan Di 18 La
Between the extreme tips of the antlers in a
BIPORSUL ING 0.5. « sspspnsgicctaoh tivtans otameene tara: 5 oui 8 9 92
Length of a single antler, following its curve...... 59 iis 510
The difference in the extent of the interspace between the tips of the antlers
depends on their direction and degree of curvature. Dr. Hart states that it
is not uncommon to find the fossil antlers 10 feet between the extreme tips ;
the same interspace between the largest antlers of the true Elk does not ex-
ceed 4 feet.
With regard to the skeleton, if the peculiar size and strength of the cervical
vertebra in the male Megaceros be excepted, which have a physiological
adaptive relation to the enormous weight of the head when the antlers are
fully developed, the forms and proportions of all the other bones, and espe-
cially those of the nose and of the upper and lower jaws, closely agree with
the type of the Fallow and Reindeer.
Prof. Phillips first described the skull of the female Wegaceros, and showed
that, as in the typical Deer, it had no trace of antlers.
I have had the opportunity, through the kindness of the Earl of Enniskillen,
of examining three other skulls of the female Megaceros. The skull in this
sex is chiefly characterized by a longitudinal angular prominence, which rises
from the posterior half of the frontal suture, and very much resembles the
median prominence, sometimes called the third horn of the Giraffe. An irre-
gular subquadrangular vacancy intervenes between the angular extremities
of the frontal, nasal, lachrymal and superior maxillary bones. The roof of
each orbit is perforated by a circular foramen, smaller than in the male.
The earliest observations bear testimony to the abundance of the remains
of the Megaceros in Ireland. In the account given by Molyneux in 1697,
three specimens were disinterred from the same bog within the extent of a
single acre, at Dardiston in the county of Meath.
The first specimen discovered in England consisted of a skull and antlers
from beneath a peat-moss at Cowthorpe, near North Deighton, in the county
of York.
Mr. Parkinson refers the beams of two antlers found in the till at Walton
in Essex, on account of their large size, to the great Irish Deer, and I have
obtained more satisfactory evidence of the Megaceros from the same newer
pliocene stratum, by inspection of the collection of fossils belonging to Mr.
Brown of Stanway, in which is preserved, not only the large round beam, but
the characteristic brow-antler and part of the palm, as far as where it has
expanded to a breadth of 10 inches. The length of the brow-antler is 5}
inches, but its extremity is broken off.
Mr. Brown has obtained from the same freshwater formation on the Essex
coast, the entire lower jaw of the Megaceros.
The base of an antler as large as that of the Megaceros has been dredged
* Griffith’s Translation of Cuvier, vol. iv. p. 873 vol. v. p. 306,
ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 239
up from the oyster-bed at Happisburgh, already referred to as famous for the
numerous teeth of the Mammoth which it has yielded.
Remains of the Megaceros found 8 feet below the surface of a peat-bog
at Hilgay, Norfolk, are preserved in the collection of Mr. Flower, of Hunter-
street, London. Antlers of the Megaceros have been disinterred from the
marl or gravel beneath peat-bogs in Lancashire.
The formerly unique skeleton of the Megaceros in the Museum of the
University of Edinburgh was obtained from a formation in the Isle of Man,
which Mr. E. Forbes, Prof. of Botany in King’s College, London, informs
me is a white marl, with freshwater shells found in detached masses, occu-
pying hollows in the red marl, which, by the proportion of marine shells. of
the species found in the neighbouring seas, is referable to the newer plio-
cene period. The cervine fossils have never been met with in the marine or
red marls in the Isle of Man, but only in the white marls occupying the fresh-
water basins of the red marl; and from the position of the beds containing
the remains of the Megaceros, Prof. Forbes concludes that this gigantic
species must have existed posterior to the elevation of the newer pliocene
marl, which is probably continuous with the same formation in Lancashire
and at the mouth of the Clyde, forming a great plain, extending from Scot-
land to Cheshire, and now for the most part covered by the sea.
Fragments of the huge antlers and other remains of the Megaceros have
been discovered in some of the ossiferous caverns in England, A characteristic
specimen, now in the British Museum, was obtained by Mr. M‘Enery from
Kent's Hole; it consists of part of the upper jaw with both series of molar
teeth ; it precisely corresponds with the same parts in the skull of a Megaceros —
from Ireland. Since, however, other large Ruminants have been introduced
into the same cavern, I have compared it with the nearest analogues from that
order. The molar teeth and intervening palate are broader transversely in
the fossil than in the Ox; the molars differ from those of the Aurochs in the
small cusp between the two internal crescents; the posterior palatine fora-
mina, which in the Ox are opposite the interspace of the penultimate and last
grinders, and which in the Elk are advanced to opposite the antepenultimate
molars, are, in the fossil, opposite the middle of the penultimate molars, as in
the Megaceros.
Thus the evidence of the former existence of the gigantic extinct Deer,
Megaceros Hibernicus, though less striking and abundant in England than in
Ireland, is complete, and of greater value, inasmuch as it establishes the con-
temporaneity of that species with the Mammoth, Rhinoceroses, and other ex-
tinct Mammalia of the period of the formation of the newest tertiary fresh-
water fossiliferous strata.
Conclusion.
Collections of Mammalian bones from turbaries and peat-bogs, from the beds
of rivers and from gravel-pits, with parts of the human skeleton, and other
evidences of their deposition within the human period, have not unfrequently
been submitted to my inspection. Such collections have never presented any
evidence of an extinct species, and have for the most part included unequivocal
remains of the domesticated quadrupeds. Thus a collection of Mammalian
bones, transmitted to me by Dr, Richardson of Haslar, from a gravel-pit in
Lincolnshire, contained the remains of a Dog, Cat, Hog, Horse, Ass, Ox, and
Sheep. A similar collection obtained from the banks of the river Avon, in
sinking the foundations of a bridge over the river near the town of Chippenham,
included bones of the Dog, Horse, Hog, Ox, Red Deer, and Goat or Sheep.
Such remains have undergone but little change, are not adhesive or absor-
bent from the loss of the animal matter, nor weighty from the addition of
mineral or metallic salts ; and are here adduced, though not strictly belonging
240 e REPORT—1843.
to a record of fossil Mammalia, to exemplify how readily and exclusively the
remains of existing species and varieties of Mammalia, of which so few pre-
sent themselves in the formations anterior to the human period, are detected
when they occur in places of later date.
In fens, turbaries and bogs, the remains of Mammalia indicate recent
species, but such, for the most part, as have either existed but are now ex-
tirpated in Great Britain, as the Wolf, the Bear, and the Beaver; or which
still remain in a wild or domesticated state, as the Fox, the Wild Boar, the
primitive short-horned Ox (Bos longifrons), the Goat, &c.
In the freshwater marls beneath the bogs, and in similar deposits overlying
newer pliocene strata with marine shells, we first meet with extinct species,
as the Cervus Megaceros, Urus priscus, &c., belonging to genera which con-
tinue to be represented in Great Britain or in Europe by existing species.
The unstratified drift or ‘till,’ so widely dispersed over this island, yields evi-
dence of extinct species belonging to genera still represented, but not in
Britain or in Europe, by living species ; the Hlephas primigenius, Rhinoceros
tichorhinus, Hippopotamus major, Hyena spelea, are familiar examples.
Most of the testaceous Mollusks, which lived contemporaneously with these
extinct quadrupeds in England, belong to species which still exist in this
island ; indicating, as Mr. Lyell* has justly observed, that the climate was not
so hot as that of the latitudes to which the Elephant, Rhinoceros and Hip-
popotamus are now confined.
The freshwater deposits, as those discovered by Mr. Brown at Clacton in
Essex, and described by Mr. Lyell at Mundesley and other parts of the
Norwich coast, which, from the occurrence of a few species of shells distinct
from any at present known in a living state, are referable to the newest ter-
tiary epoch, contain similar evidence of extinct species of Mammalia; some
belonging to genera, as Canis, Ursus, Felis, Putorius, Arvicola, Castor,
Equus, Bos, Cervus, still represented by European species, and others to
genera, as Elephas, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Hyena, now confined to the
warmer parts of Asia and Africa.
The same association of Mammalian fossils in the ossiferous caverns of
Great Britain, indicates the period of their introduction to have corresponded
with that of the deposition of the remains above alluded to in the newer
pliocene strata; in some of the latter, however, as in the lacustrine ligni-
ferous beds near Bacton, on the Norfolk coast, we obtain evidence of extinct
subgenera of Insectivora and Rodentia, as the Paleospalax and Trogontherium.
When we descend to the older pliocene tertiary formations, as the fluvio-
marine crag at Whitlingham, Postwick, Thorpe, and Bramerton in Norfolk,
remains of the Mastodon occur.
The Eocene tertiary formations reveal more numerous extinct Mammalian
genera, and more remote than the Mastodon from existing types ; while the
indications of existing genera, as of the Macacus, and perhaps Didelphys,
are very scanty, and such as one might have least expected to meet with in
the latitudes of England.
The constancy of the association of particular organic remains with parti-
cular geological strata, is most strikingly illustrated by discovering in the
Eocene deposits of England the same peculiar extinct Mammalia which had
been determined by Cuvier’s masterly investigations of the fossil remains from
the corresponding formations on the Continent. In addition to Lophiodon,
Paleotherium, Anoplotherium, Dichobunes, and Cheropotamus, only one other
extinct genus has been discovered in the Eocene strata of Britain, viz. the
Hyracotherium, and the nearest affinities of this little Pachyderm are to the
Cheropotamus of the same epoch.
* Principles of Geology, ed. 1835, vol. i. p. 142.
ON AN EXCAVATION AT COLLYHURST. 941
Thus the existing species and genera of mammiferous animals gradually re-
cede from our view, and new and strange forms appear, as we “successively
reinstate and bring before the mind’s eye the animated beings of the more
remote tertiary periods of the earth’s history.
The most extraordinary feature in the Palzontology of this island is the
proof of the high antiquity of the Mammalian class which has been derived
from the oolitic slate at Stonesfield in Oxfordshire. If the existing generic types
are almost lost when we reach in a retrospective survey the oldest tertiary
periods, we might anticipate that the Mammalia of the oolitic epoch would
differ as much from the peculiarly eocene generic forms as these do from those
which now exist, and we accordingly find such an anticipation fully borne out
by the ascertained characters of the Amphitherium and Phascolotherium—
the most ancient Mammalian inhabitants of this planet.
Report on the excavation made at the junction of the Lower New Red
Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst, near Manchester.
By E. W. Binney.
Tue vicinity of Manchester affords many examples of those great dislocations
in the carboniferous strata which took place prior to the deposition of the
members of the new red sandstone formation, and into which the waters that
deposited the new red sandstone flowed until the hollows formed by such
dislocations were at length filled up. A small patch of coal measures, situate
on the north-east of the town, known by the name of the Manchester coal
field, is an isolated tract entirely surrounded by the newred sandstone. The
valley of the Irk cut through the “till,” runs nearly in a line with the rise and
dip of the strata, and exposes successively the outcrops of the upper new
red sandstone, magnesian limestone, and lower new red sandstone, the last-
named rock lying upon coal measures 600 yards down in the series. The ac-
companying section (No.1) will best show the relative position of the strata
(see Section I., p. 242).
As the absolute point of contact between the coal measures and the lower
new red sandstone had~not been seen, a deep cutting was made at a place
called Tinker’s Brow, adjoining Mr. Buckley’s sand delph, about one mile
north-east of the Manchester Exchange. This cutting was visited by many
members of the Association at the last meeting, and displayed some interest-
ing facts connected with the till as well as the lower new red sandstone and
the coal measures.
In the accompanying section No.2, a portion of the excavation made in
__ working Mr. Buckley’s sand delph, as well as the cutting made on the occasion
_ above mentioned, is shown.
, Section II.
Section of Strata at Collyhurst, near Manchester.
aoe ee 2 LL
=< _S§s@— kaz2__
= _ LLL
1, Silt (supposed). . Til. 3. Contorted Silt.
4, Lower New Red Sandstone dipping at an angle of 18. 5, Coal Measures dipping at an angle of 24,
1843. R
242
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REPORT—1843.
, Exchange.
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&
Vauxhall,
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-Smedley Bridge:
Bf
Smedley Hall.
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AZ
ms
-.Smedley Mill.
on Mr. J, Andrews’s Works,
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*T won09g
ON AN EXCAVATION AT COLLYHURST. 943
The different beds will be described in the descending order :—
Ist, The Till— Throughout Lancashire this deposit is known in the country
by the name of marl, and near towns as brick-clay, and in an economical point
of view is the most valuable deposit in the drift series. It is composed of a
stiff brown clay, mixed with a little sand, and containing a small proportion of
carbonate of lime. On being treated with hydrochloric acid, it effervesces with
considerable briskness. The clay when cut down with a knife presents a brown
colour, but when allowed to cleave in the open air, which it will do both ver-
tically and horizontally in the act of drying, the sides of the cleavages are
coated with a covering of dull blue colour, probably arising from the pre-
sence of a small quantity of carbonate of iron. In it are mingled without
any order of position blocks of red and light-coloured granites, sienites, por-
phyries, greenstones, basalts, and various other rocks of igneous origin, clay
slates, Silurian rocks, mountain limestones, cherts, millstone grits, all the in-
durated rocks, ironstones, and coals of the carboniferous series, magnesian
limestones, and waterstones (the last-named lying i situ amongst the upper
red marls), but no other rocks of a more modern date have as yet been found
in it. These fragments are of various sizes, from the size of an ordinary pea
to blocks of five tons in weight, and lie mingled together without any order
of deposition.
The external characters of the boulders in the till are remarkable ; some
present well-rounded surfaces, others having lost the angles on one or two
sides, the edges of the remaining sides are quite sharp; some are scored with
striz and polished, and many are quite angular, as if they had been recently
separated from their parent rocks, having scarcely undergone any attrition.
The granites, porphyries, greenstones, and all the hard slate rocks, none of
which now occur 7m situ within a less distance than near 100 miles, are for
the most part, but certainly not all of them, well-rounded, and many of them
are marked with striz on one or both of their sides. Rocks at present found
wm situ nearer Manchester, such as mountain limestones and cherts, are more
angular and less striated and polished than those last mentioned, but the mill-
stone grits, carboniferous strata, magnesian limestones, and waterstones, al-
though some of them are striated, polished and rounded, have generally sharp
edges.
Boulders in the till at Collyhurst near the edge of the great fault there
are both more numerous and larger than those found in the same deposit in
any other place around Manchester. A well-rounded block of greenstone,
three tons in weight, was found some years ago in Mr. Buckley’s delph, and
since the last meeting of the Association at Manchester, a block of millstone
grit, of between four and five tons in weight, has been met with in the same
place. Three of the sides of this last-named mass have lost their edges, while
the remaining one bears evidence of having undergone considerable friction.
It has been stated that the boulders occur in the clay without any distinct
lines of deposition, mingled together pell-mell. This is the case at Collyhurst,
but still there are at one point distinct lines of a regular deposition from water.
At about a yard from the bottom of the till occurs a deposit of fine laminated
silt, something resembling the warp of our English rivers, with thin layers of
fine sand: it is from ten to twelve inches in thickness. This bed is quite
free from pebbles, although the till both above and below it is full of them.
Generally speaking the silt lies level, but there are several places where it is
seen much contorted and twisted without the underlying lower new red
sandstone exhibiting any corresponding appearances. The total thickness of
the till is twenty-one feet, and it rests on an uneven surface of lower new
R 2
944 REPORT—1843.
red sandstone rock, apparently water-worn. No fossil organic remains have
as yet, to my knowledge, been found in it at Collyhurst.
2. The lower new red sandstone is composed of a dark red sand, varie-
gated by patches of a yellowish drab colour. The upper part of it is much
used for the purpose of iron-moulding, but the lower portion is not fitted for
such use, owing to nodules of iron occurring in it. Its grains of sand are
well-rounded, and are composed chiefly of white quartz, with some few pieces
of jasper, all coloured red by a slight coating of sesquioxide of iron. So uni-
form in size are the grains, that a pebble as large as a good-sized pea has never
yet to my knowledge been found in the rock. The thickness of the rock is
full forty yards, but it has never been thoroughly proved by absolute ad-
measurement. The main dip is to the S.W. at an angle of 16 to 18 degrees,
but it has also a considerable inclination to the N.W.
No fossil remains, either of animals or plants, have to my knowledge been
found in it.
The upper parts of the rock bear evident marks of erosion by the water
which deposited the till. In some places holes two or three feet deep, called
by the workmen “ posts,” are found in the sandstone filled with till, while at
other places the surface of the rock is only slightly marked or scooped out.
3. The coal measures consist of a bed of salmon-coloured argillaceous
shale, of thirty feet in thickness, containing impressions of ewropterts cordata
and many common coal plants. Their position in the carboniferous series is
immediately above the Collyhurst sandstone, and under all the coals which
have as yet been worked in the Manchester coal field, say about 600 yards
below the uppermost of the carboniferous strata at Ardwick. Their dip is
10° east of south, at an angle of 24°. This inclination is not the usual one
in the adjoining mines of Mr. Buckley, where it is only 18° to the 8.S.W.,
and must be attributed to the fault which has thrown down the coal measures
at the point of junction with the new red sandstone formation, and now
forms the trough in which the latter lies. In the collieries above alluded to,
the coals in their strike abut against, or as the miners express it, are “ cut
off” by the new red sandstone.
The chief object for which the excavation was made, was to ascertain the
condition of the lower new red sandstone, and the coal measures at the
point of contact. The latter were mixed with the loose sand of the former,
and the measures, to the depth of three feet, had lost their original laminated
structure and become homogeneous, presenting the appearance of drift clay,
so that the absolute line of demarcation of one formation from the other could
not be determined with any degree of nicety ; their colour was a deep red
mottled with marks of a dirty yellow; in fact their whole appearance, as well
as the red and salmon‘colours of the underlying strata to a great depth, seemed
to show that they had long been exposed to the action of water before they
were covered up by the sandstone.
The dip of the two formations does not differ much, that of the coal mea-
sures being at an angle of 24° to a little east of south, that of the lower new
red sandstone 17° to the S.W., while the usual dip of the former, the Man-
chester coal field, is 18° to S.S.W., the latter from 5° to 10° to the S.W.
The coal measures were partly elevated before the deposition of the new red
sandstone formation, but it is evident that the latter have been raised by
forces which have subsequently elevated the coal measures, as the similarity
of the dip in both strata testifies.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 245
Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Ynvertebrata. Drawn up, at the
request of the British Association, by Witu1AM TuHompson, Esq.,
President of the Natural History and Philosophical Society of Bel-
Sast.
Introduction.
In the former portion of my Report on the Fauna of Ireland, laid before the
meeting of the British Association at Glasgow in 1840, the Vertebrata only
were included*. In the continuation now presented, are all the native species
of Invertebrata—Mollusca, Crustacea, Cirrhipeda, Annelida, Foraminifera,
Entozoa, Echinodermata, Acalepha, Zoophyta, Amorphozoa—excepting In-
secta and Infusoria, using the former term in its widest sense.
For the whole of the information in some departments I am indebted to
others: of a portion undertaken by myself, I have only yet obtained a super-
ficial knowledge. A want of unity will be observable throughout in the treat-
ment of the various subjects, the most obvious point of which to some natu-
ralists will be in the nomenclature :—the first names bestowed on the species,
which according to the just rule of priority (see British Association Rules
of Nomenclature) should be those used, could only be partially ascertained
within the allotted time.
This Report does not embrace so comprehensive a view as I originally con-
templated with respect to widely-extended comparisons, and the causes which
seem to operate on the distribution of the various classes, &c. of Inverte-
brata, but as now given, it may afford data to others better qualified to do
justice to that subject. It wili in its present state only have a value in record-
ing the species indigenous to Ireland, and offering a comparison between them
and those of Great Britain, but this is not unimportant with regard even to
the general geographical distribution of species. The European Fauna, it
need scarcely be observed, could not be perfected without that of Ireland
being known, which latter is again especially interesting, in consequence of
our island being within its latitude the extreme western limit to which all the
species included in it range that are peculiar to the eastern, or in other words,
are not found in the western hemisphere.
The Fauna of Ireland, compared with that of Great Britain, exhibits the
falling off of species westerly compared with that island, which again on its
part (though not treated of here) presents a similar falling off westerly com-
pared with tlie opposite shore of the continent. An example may be neces-
sary in explanation, and the most striking will be selected, though the subject-
matter belong to the former part of this Report. Thus, of the class Reptilia
_ there are in
Beterumt. Great Brirain. IRELAND.
Order Sauria.
Lacerta ...... 3 species... 2 species (same as Belg.)... 1 species (same as Brit.).
Anguis......++. 1 pate peaetanatite fh oy Pe a Our ss
* The species of Vertebrata since added to our catalogue are—
Turdus Whitei, Eyton, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xi. p. 78.
Pycnonotus chrysorrheus, Swains. See present volume.
Cuculus glandarius, Lin., Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xii. p. 149, and present volume.
Glareola pratincola, Lin. (sp.) See present volume.
Naucrates ductor, Cuv. and Val, See present volume.
The Lepus Hibernicus and L. variabilis are now proved to be of the same species
(see present volume): respecting the animal provisionally called Mus Hibernicus no
further information has been obtained.
+ According to the excellent ‘ Faune Belge’ of De Selys-Longchamps.
246 REPORT—1843.
Beiteium. Great Britain. IRELAND.
Order Ophidia.
Comber ii. (2 5, FROM Sad oo veddegdeseonen HO
IN BATIK i000. -1 4, 1 ,, (sameas Belg.)... 0
Vipera......+ iiss tosh eect ales 3 aks
Order Batrachia.
IRENA, Saccctenas pF Oh ae oe ..» 1 species (same as Brit.).
Bombala cs eee GeO Me Ae cssciesceaSTuconss lO
12h CR ae i pea Sra auinn” SRG AaRGE Ra ARP ROSE ce)
BULO ss ecccous 7 wren cp sir sat (SEER aX she tpl 313) 1249 JAR Malle 5
MHIAMIANUTA se Lon ae eee Oe a eeat erent canara
Triton st. we 4 4, «- 3*®* 4, (sameas Belg.)... 2 ,, 53
22 11 5
It appears therefore that the deficiency of Ireland compared with Great
Britain in the Reptilia, is much upon the same scale as that of the latter island
compared with Belgium.
There is not any island of similar extent to Ireland, and in like manner
situated with respect to other lands, with which to compare it. The islands of
New Zealand within temperate latitudes in the southern hemisphere may how-
ever be mentioned as possessing of indigenous Mammalia}, Bats alone, of which
one species has been described} ; and no Ophidian reptiles. “Throughout the
present Report (to quote from the former portion) it must be borne in mind, that
all species found from the Channel Islands in the south, to the Shetland Islands
in the north, are included in the fauna of Great Britain, and that within the
degrees of latitude over which it extends, Ireland occupies but one-third. Ire-
land is comprised within four degrees, while the Shetland Islands range nearly
six degrees further to the north, and more than two degrees to the south the
Channel Islands are situated. The Fauna of Great Britain also extends over
ten degrees of longitude, while that of Ireland is limited to half the number.”
The physical geography and climate need not be dwelt on here, as in the
case of the Mammalia Terrestria, Aves, and Reptilia, as the Jand Mollusca
and Annelides only will be directly affected by such influences. The fresh-
water Mollusca, Crustacea, Annelida and Amorphozoa will be affected, but
less directly, by the physical geography, taken in connection with the mine-
ralogical structure of the country ; as will the marine species in some degree,
by the nature and quantity of the residuum brought by rivers to the sea.
The physical geography of the bottom of the sea will have a powerful effect
on the marine Invertebrata of all kinds, even greater than that of the dry land
on its animals. According to the configuration and depth, to the mineralo-
gical character of the rocks, the vegetation, &c., shall we find particular fami-
lies, genera, and species. Even where the configuration and depth are similar,
the oozy, sandy, gravelly, or rocky bottom, will have each its peculiar animals.
It has not been thought desirable, as in the Report on the Vertebrata, to
treat distinctly of every species, as to its being common or rare, &c.; but in-
* Rana Scotica and Triton Bibronii, of which so little is known, either as to distri-
bution or otherwise, are not enumerated.
+ In Mammalia, Belgium has two genera—Crocidura and Cricetus—not found in
Great Britain, in which are four—J?hinolophus, Talpa, Myoxus, Arvicola—unknown
to Ireland. De Selys-Longchamps believes Belgium to be the most northern limit of
the genus Crocidura, and states that it is not met with in Holland or Denmark.
t The species is Vespertilio tuberculatus, Forster. J. E. Gray in Deiffenbach’s
New Zealand, vol. ii. p. 181. According to the Report of the United States’ Exploring
Expedition, publislfed in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for January 1844 ;—
“none of the Pacific Islands, including New Zealand, contain any native Mammalia
except Bats,” p. 32.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 247
stead, to leave this to be indicated by the tabular mark of distribution, al-
though it may often prove unsatisfactory. Thus, species which have been
found but once on each side of the island are marked as conspicuously under
north, east, west and south, as those which are abundant round the coast.
But naturalists will not be deceived by this; none will imagine that because
Eulima subulata exhibits the same number of asterisks as Rissoa ulve, that
the species are equally plentiful; but all will know that the former, though
widely distributed, is found in extremely limited numbers, and the latter in
abundance where they respectively occur. Nor, was it deemed necessary in
so brief a summary, to give the authorities for the occurrence of the various
species ; but reference is made throughout to the works in which all the details
published respecting them will be found.
MOLLUSCA.
Catalogues of the testaceous Mollusca of Ireland, elaborated during the
residence of their respective authors in this country, were drawn up about the
same time by Capt. Brown and Dr. Turton*, in which they were aided by the
collections of Mr. O’Kelly of Dublin, Dr. Thomas Taylor eal contributed
by Miss Hutchins of Bantry), Mr. Samuel Wright of Cork, Mrs. Clewlow, Dr.
M°Gee, Dr. M*Donnell, and Mr. Templeton of Belfast+. Mr. Templeton,
before and after the period of their researches, was silently noting down for
future publication all that he could learn upon the subject, but, stationary
at his country residence, he was less favourably circumstanced than either of
those gentlemen, by whom various parts of the country and coast were
visited. Their inquiries, directed to a single branch of natural history,
were naturally more productive in that one department than his, whose sur-
vey embraced the whole Flora and Fauna of Ireland, for the illustration of
which he was diligently collecting materials. To Bryce’s ‘Tables of Simple
Minerals, Rocks and Shells,’ found in three of the northern counties, Mr.
Hyndman contributed a few hitherto unnoticed species. The native Mol-
lusea, more especially of Youghal and Dublin, have been effectively collected
and studied by Mr. Robert Ball, aided by his sister Miss M. Ball; as have
those of Limerick and Miltown Malbay, on the western coast, by Mr. Wm.
Henry Harvey; those of Cork by Mr. John Humphreys, and those of the
northern shores by Mr. Geo. C. Hyndman. A few species of the highest
interest from the northern province have been obtained by Dr. J.L. Drummond,
as have some from the southern by Dr. Geo. J. Allman. The extensive and
beautiful collections of Mr. T. W. Warren and Dr. Farran of Dublin, more
particularly of species from the neighbouring coast—the richest in Ireland—
have rendered most important aid towards an elucidation of the subject.
The Ordnance collection has contributed in so far as the comparatively poor
coast investigated could afford. Mrs. Hancock has rendered essential service
by assiduously collecting the species of the western shores, at Ballysodare
in the county of Sligo, and Bundoran in the county of Donegal, and trans-
mitting them to Belfast, where they came under the inspection of Mr. Hynd-
man and myself. —
* Capt. Brown’s memoir was dated from Naas Barracks, Ireland, Aug. 20, 1815,
and read before the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh on the 16th of December in that
year (see Wern. Mem. vol. ii.). Dr. Turton’s appeared in the ‘Dublin Examiner,
or Monthly Miscellany of Literature, Science and Art,’ in July 1816. In the
subsequent works of these authors additional Irish species were described: all in the
following catalogue that are noticed by them only (i. e. unknown to my correspondents
and myself) are marked as on their authority.
+ Ata subsequent period, the collection of James Rose Clealand, Esq. of Bangor in
the county of Down, contributed some interesting species to Sowerby, &c.
248 REPORT—1843,
Those who have given attention to the Testaceous Mollusca generally have
hitherto been alluded to. The native land and freshwater species exclu-
sively have been well studied by the Rev. Benj. J. Clarke, Mr. Edward Wal-
ler, and the Rev. Thomas Hincks (late of Cork). Several other naturalists
and collections might be named, but those enumerated are among the principal.
The species added to our Fauna from the preceding sources and from per-
sonal investigation, have been noticed in ‘ Additions to the Fauna of Ireland,’
published in the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ (vol. v. vii. xiii.); in vol. v. a
deseription of Limneus involutus, and a contribution on the Mollusea Nudi-
branchia and Moll. Tunicata will be found: in vol. vi. is a catalogue of the
land and freshwater Mollusca.
Although I had some time since with considerable labour brought together
in manuscript all that has been published on the Irish Mollusca, and looked
over all the collections possible, I have critically studied a small portion only
of the subject. Without the aid therefore of my scientific friends, Mr. Alder
of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Professor Edward Forbes, the Mollusca as a -
whole could not have been undertaken. In the Gasteropoda Nudibranchia
and the marine Testaceous tribes their assistance has been most valuable.
Some naturalists will consider the number of British species alluded to in
the remarks on the different Orders much under what it should be. This
arises from my adoption of the British list, as expurgated by the two distin-
guished malacologists whose aid has been alluded to. A number of species
which have from time to time been introduced without sufficient evidence are
omitted; a number more are reduced to mere varieties ; and species figured
or described in such a manner as not to be understood by the best informed
on the subject, are unnoticed.
In the Classes and Orders, Rang’s ‘ Manuel des Mollusques’ is chiefly fol-
lowed. Distribution,
Slalsis
Sial2]2
Class CEPHALOPODA. 2 /a\F la
Sepia officinalis, Lin., Lam.*.sssssccsseceverseeceesenes dadinadesdseitnsshauesenanelise lan Sele
»» Tupellaria, Fer. & D’Orb.? (1.)F sseeeeseeeee Siaeesxthetbas ares + cuaewulee
Loligo vulgaris, Lam.; Sepia loligo, Lin....csececeseereeesees ne ceeds = srsesedl x |
ao Sagittata, Lam, vara? ...ccccccsoccscscsecscocssoes Siastasae teases eae woleaSlanciae *
» subulata, Fer. & D’Orb. var.1. (1.) ....6.00- Sab tn dein Wancese eve eneweal cy
“ A ee WHE state sawcnacn<aagadageces trys qpecccmneqesecegee|eeplentics © %
o> “Media, Litt. (Sp.) coccccasescecssessecercccesece ne Weuusdvccces ticauccrecucess'e el eles
Liv i Eblampe, Ball (L.)isssssextests cqees ets ducswngedesndeutseddsesedenasgigdsccess ale
Octopus vulgaris, Lam. ..... is abvan stasis saeseeese aanxedddeene ifésas days stewcuitd *
Eledone octopodia, Penn. (sp-); Sepia octopodia, Penn. ; Octopus Ba
* topodia, lem, ..scesecrersecenceeseassereeceeees sieeegee eansedecoven ti ® | Pulau
¥ EHS pe ae iy renga te, Beat eee arian ee
Sepiola Rondeletii, Risso; Sepia sepiola, Lin, .-ecssseerceereeees fais Gacnsushs eae a
Rogsin: Owen, eget.) cocecacvecscadecessccsesocesss acces ad Socste dass aoudugitedtéqul d
oC FACUDI, Han Clete eaten. ccceeueces ns caee scaCenres ss verniecsncmeee ans pe ae *
Spirula australis; Naut. spirula, Lin. .....sccececeecssecseceeveteeeneeens Peostslg ere
* It has been considered sufficient throughout this Report simply to indicate the
north, east, west and south. The Mollusca of the following localities have been more
or-Jess investigated :—Vorth, Coasts of Londonderry and Antrim,—Last, Counties
of Antrim, Down, Louth, Dublin, Wicklow.— West, Bundoran, co. Donegal; Bally-
sodare, eo, Sligo; Birterbury and Roundstone bays (Dr. Farran); Clifden, Killery
and Clew bays, &c., (R. Ball, E. Forbes, G.C. Hyndman, W.T.) in the counties of Mayo
and Galway ; Miltown Malbay, co. Clare.—South, Bantry Bay, Youghal, Cork harbour.
+ (1.) throughout the Report denotes species known as Irish, and not as British.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 249
The larger native Cephalopoda were noticed in the old county histories,
and a few additional species have been briefly indicated by myself in the
‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ (1834), p. 31, and in the ‘ Annals of
Nat. Hist, vol. v. p.10. Mr. R. Ball, in bringing before the Royal Irish
Academy a notice of a new species of Loligo (L. Hblane) on Nov. 30, 1839,
announced the other indigenous species of that genus*, and on the 10th of
January, 1842, described before the same Society two new species of Rossia,
and noticed all the Irish species of Cephalopoda of which he was cognisant.
These are published in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy of that
date. An Eledone in my possession, from Belfast bay, though closely allied
to E. octopodia, seems to be distinct. Octopus vulgaris is given on the au-
thority of Templeton only, who remarks that it is “not uncommon,’ an €x-
pression which, taken in connection with the omission of Bled. octopodia from
his catalogue, leads me to believe that this latter was probably the species
meant. If the Octopus vulgaris be included, the Irish list contains all the
British species excepting Eledone Aldrovandi, described by Mr. Macgillivray
within the present year in his ‘Mollusca of Aberdeenshire.’ Five of the
Irish Cephalopoda—Sepia rupellaria, Loligo subulata, L. Eblane, Rossia
Oweni, R. Jacobi—are not known as British species.
Distribution.
Slal¢|s
Class Preropopa. Z\a le |g
Hyalea trispinosa, Cuv. (Anim. King. by Griff. vol. xii. Mollusca, pl. 3.
R72 (I.) DHELLEVRNETLTD, PRAT eteeeie UE PRR AP ee bg
? Peracle Flemingi, Forbes}; Fusus retroversus, Flem. ....cccscscscaveeeses[eue]ees *%
No species of this class can be noted with certainty as taken on
the coast of Great Britain, it being doubtful whether the Peracle
Flemingi belong to the Pteropoda. This species is only known
as Irish from some specimens being found by Mr. Hyndman in
shell-sand collected by Mrs. Hancock at Bundoran, on the coast of
Donegal, in the summer of 1840. Of Hyalea trispinosa a single
example with the contained animal was found by Mr. R. Ball on
the beach near Youghal, county of Cork, some years ago, and at
the same time with three species of the pedunculated Cirrhipeda,
(A. levis, A, sulcata, A. fascicularis) a Spirula australis, and an
Lanthina communis. The Anatife were attached to the mast of a
vessel, and in their “tangled mass” the Hyaleaand Spirula occurred.
Class GASTEROPODA.
Order Nucleobranchiata.
Sagitta Britannica, Forbes? Report in present volUME .....0....cesecseeasefensfens [ere
This order was first introduced to the British Fauna at the present meet-
ing by Professor E. Forbes, who a few years since obtained examples of it in
the Frith of Forth and British Channel in a species which he has named
Sagitta Britannica. About the same time, Dr. G. J. Allman obtained similar
Mollusca (of which he made drawings) on the coast of Cork, but whether
they be of the same species is uncertain.
j * Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. i. p. 362, where L. Eblane is well
gured.
t See his Report in present yolume.
250 REPORT—1843.
Distribution.
Class GASTEROPODA.
Order Nudibranchiata.
Doris tuberculata, Cuv.; D. argo, Penn. ..ccrccccccssesvcccsvcccnens ode peneree
»» repanda, Alder & Hancock, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p. 32 ....cessseesleeeleee
}) bilamellata, Lin. ; Ds verrucosa, Penns (..icccceccsessccdecsneecttocaecee
»» affinis, Thomp. Ann. N. H. vol.v. p.85 1.) ose. He Cr EELE tise ¥
3» Ulidie, Thomp. MSS. (1.)......0+4 siaseue waclabaaes sadde datvdisads sigeewiee
»» mouricata, Mull. Thomp. Ann. N. H. vol. v. p. 86 cccccccceeeeeceeseees
»» aspera, Ald. & Hanc. Ann. N. H. vol. ix. p. 32 c.scscesessesenseeeeeeaelens
»» pilosa, Cuv.; D. nigricans, Flem. .....+sse+++0 emia tah a tides ania nate nee
», sublevis, Thomp. Ann. N. H. vol. v. p. 87 (1.) ....sscsecsseeseeee recat
Gontodoris nodosa, WMont."Gp.)* c..c...-cnseseoscocaeceaccecaccaccssoe Sreatarace
var. G. Barvicensis, Johnst. (Sp.) ...cccccsceesssecceceees eR rad |e
vs elongata, Thomp. Ann. N. H. vol. v. p. 88 (1.) ...eseecceeesecseclene
Polycera quadrilineata, deci livGs py) slab cases te sacas cbecseccbese custeckccteeet duces
»» typica, Thomp. Ann. N. H. vol. v. p. 92 (1.) ...... desde wobec Seseee
» ocellata, Ald. & Hanc. Ann: N.H. vol. ix. p. 33. cis.cccsepseccsscsloes
soi, Cltrinay Ald. pAmn Nad. VOls Wisp ps SA OM ooaendedaab. cccsnsa nan sosasealaey
» cristata, Ald. os Tis maken. cxckas acilgsnss eaeeeee les
Euplocamus claviger, Mull. (Sp.) ssscrscsseeecscrseetceneeesecessevseesensens
syn. E. plumosus, Ann. N. H. vol. v. p. 90 .sescssesesseeeseeneeenes -
E. pulcher, Mag. N. H. vii. p. 490. & Ann. N. H. vii. p. 480.
Tritonia Hombergii, Cuv. ........05 Ed edaneorensctvesddes usage Spec dsenee Brecronee noel
»» Pplebeia, Johns. Ann. N. H. vol. i. p. 115 ...cseseceeeesseeeseeeeteneeeelevsleeslens
»» arborescens, Cuv. ...++. gates betes cadets tesdenee ss wiidsjevttadeuguand
var. T. lactea, Ann. N. H. vol. v. 88 ...scocsess. mae
Melibcea fragilis, Forbes; Malacol. Monensis ........++ Fohaneaaaeees set seaselacels wis) ell ae
»» coronata, Johnst.; var. M. ornata, Ald. & Hanc. Ann. N. H.
VOl.1x: 34 dopwddece aeaemsascredeeses Bec SH Picerontenn) pon esenns
Calliopza? bifida; Doris bif., Mont. Linn. Trans. xi. p. 198.t. 14. £3;
Thomp. Ann. N. H. vol. vii. 480.....eseeseeeeeee hee Se oeeg Beer Pecos
Eolis papillosa, Lin. (Sp.) sssecssscsesseerecereres bast. scuesene fiotso. erseees nates
,, ZLetlandica, Forbes, Athenzeum, 1839, p.647 s.scseeeeaseeee siseatacneeetl.Ealeee
», Cuvieri; Lam., Johnst. Ann. N. H. vol. i. 120. pl. 3. f.9-11 ...... athe
», coronata, Forb. Athen. id. cscccccsecssscesssveceneccs ed aapances caseae seen det
»» pallida, Ald. & Hanc. Ann. N. H. vol. ix. ps 35 crsesessseeesereeeees nanos
3. ‘Biba; 55 a See AVOl. Kil. LO)lT saeeeenscusseshiepere 5 ee
>» Farrani, ” ” ”» ” (1.)
»» Drummondi, Thomp.; E. rufibranchialist, Ann. N. H. vol.v.p.89 (I.)| ,
4 BCID) Pe oh I aeINE Red H, thaiotte ase: na adeneet peut le
Proctonotus mucroniferus, Ald. & Hance. Aun. N. H. vol. xiii. (1.)...-+..-/..-] 4
Alderia amphibia§, Allman, MSS. (1.) ...--.-+- HABE ME aeetnaccesceerta avcseslots|seelaag
Twenty species of Nudibranchia were recorded as Irish in 1840 ||, a number
equal to that known to be British in 1828, when Dr. Fleming’s ‘British Animals’
* “(sp.)” throughont the Report denotes the specific name, and it only, to be that
of the author quoted.
+ Mr. Alder, after an examination of the specimens so designated, considers that
they are not the true Z. rufibranchialis: I have therefore proposed the above name, as
from the sketches and minute description of the species in Dr. J. L, Drummond’s
journal, it has become properly understood.
{ The species of Zolis not named was dredged at Donaghadee in May 1843, by
Dr. Drummond, but unfortunately a description was not made out at the time of its
capture. The specimen on being submitted to Mr. Alder was stated to be certainly
distinct from any of the preceding and to come nearest in form to his £, concinna
and Z£. vittata, though probably distinct from either of them.
§ Alderia is a new genus of Dr. Allman’s, as Proctonotus is of Messrs, Alder and
Hancock.
|| Annals Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 84 e¢ seg., and vii. p. 480.
. sl
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. ~ 25]
appeared. Since the latter period the British catalogue of species belonging
to this beautiful order of Mollusca has been greatly augmented by the labours
of Dr. Johnston*, Mr. Edward Forbes}, Mr. Aldert, and Mr. Hancock, and
above all by the two latter gentlemen, who, studying the subject conjointly,
have by the very complete and philosophical manner in which their investiga-
tions were conducted, thrown the greatest light upon the order Nudibranchia.
The number of British species now known is sixty-five §, of which twenty-
three have been met with in Ireland; to these latter are to be added eleven
species unknown as British, making the number of Irish altogether thirty-four
—of these eleven, two constitute new genera, and the remaining nine are,
with the exception of the Doris muricata of the ‘ Zoologia Danica,’ believed
to be new species and are indicated in the preceding catalogue by the initial
“(I.)” All of the British genera but two—#ubranchus and Calliopea ||—
have been procured on the Irish coast; the former is known only from its
occurrence in one instance to Mr. Forbes in the Isle of Man; the latter was
as a British genus announced for the first time at the present meeting: upon
the Irish coast only the new genera Proctonotus and Alderia have been ob-
tained. The genus Proctonotus, together with two new species of Holis and
seven species known as British, but not hitherto as Irish ], were added to our
catalogue by Mr. Alder last autumn during little more than three days’ exami-
nation of the Dublin coast: within a similar time about equally good results
have been obtained by Mr. Hyndman and myself in another locality, Strangford
lough; instances which show how much may be done in the Nudibranchia with-
in a very limited period. Mr. Alder (who in conjunction with Mr. Hancock is
engaged in a monograph of the whole of the British species belonging to this
order) having expressed a desire to examine my specimens noticed in the fifth
and seventh volumes of the ‘ Annals of Natural History,’ they were at once
placed in his hands. This has unexpectedly proved serviceable to myself on
the present occasion, as I have had the benefit of his revision of what had
been written on the Irish species. Mr. Alder’s information on the subject so
far surpasses my own, that his opinion has been implicitly followed through-
out the preceding catalogue with respect to what are good species, what only
varieties, &e. Distribution.
S|./s/4
Class GASTEROPODA. EIe : 3
Order Inferobranchiata. bi ibe
Pleurobranchus plumula; Bulla plum. Mont. .......sscceccseesceseecseceeoeeslesefaes 2
nA ? membranaceus ; Lamellaria memb. Mont. ...........cc.seleceleee raelia
Are the British species of the order Inferobranchia.
Class GASTEROPODA.
Order Teetibranchiata.
Aplysia depilans, Lin.......0..00 Bea Adcaddanaddcsuvesasisasedpsccsaed ssc bcheudises sgeltegsl al
PMDMOCLALAs CUUL Vancnddantencncsmeevs scesestonovaaess iaswadcess@baou nals waa fae Page| sec
* Annals Nat. Hist. vol. i.
+ Annals Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 102 et seq.; Malacologia Monensis, Report, British
Association, 1839, p. 80.
~ Annals Nat. Hist. vol. vi. ix. xiii.
§ Messrs. Alder and Hancock have contributed about twenty-five species to this
number within the last two or three years.
|| Mr. Alder marks Doris bifida, Mont. (which has been obtained in Belfast bay)
with doubt, as belonging to this genus. Montagua he considers not to be generically
distinct from Holis, Calliopea dendritica—the British species—is described in Annals
Nat. Hist. for Oct. 1843.
{| Two of these species, obtained by Dr. Geo. J. Allman on the coast of Cork in
August 1842, have been forwarded to me since the preceding was written.
252 REPORT—1843.
Distribution,
Class GASTEROPODA. z el¢ g
Order Teetibranchiata. Lal Lal al cl
EU ONAL Ay IN fess sadcdacee feces tiga csuacsctecesas. sdk cscccsessiagtssvaqaptsasien xl ala | *
By MCT Hs el Olen te SeCRMCMUERE DR Ga ets cs coh cctessdOcoeesscccecsadepertagapensctcnas élals
” hydatis, Lin., Don. Ee ccccccccevcccccccsccccsenetccancaccesect Ceedcecscsvectes seo! pe [esol &
», Cranchii, Leach; B. striata, Brown. ...... Geels us Nvesterelt bed inl?
»» Uumbilicata, Mont. ..........- PRTC AN Pee dated é: PONY eon! xe | ae |
», diaphana, Turt.; Diaphana pellucida, Brown, Illus. ......2..+ prak a |e
»» cylindracea, Pen., Mont. .......4.. Witte caaeedch cachee¥ns snvevtvours hay fapihie |
#. ser EMM eab a WA AGING oe Nd Gla ticcakacces os shih cued duet aciay La ap cmods edn cee Enanas xl ale |
So. ODEUNE VIMONhe cccvdataeina Pees io ceecsis acaed cpanegneacs cde ldlaltsoacvastincael anes
yo LVI PSE aso gece tu aptaten amen ei tacconas aoeaseasaiepeea ssp shot to senve-nane cool ge | |
» pectinata, Dillw.; B. scabra, Mull. Zool. Dan. .........ccecseeeseees eleeel arts
Bullea aperta; Bulla aperta, Lin., Mont.......06cccsecscocscorocssocsrssosacecs wlelelx
ja) Punclata, Adams, Gp.) Vick i cat ueurivei tens ivcadvenes|seuleed) ge d
» Catena, Mont., (sp.).....cseceesees Gi kcda Meaeh ued tha Vicwds «Wide cksaiweaee welteeleeel x
i BP ayes Avate evel AG tendsedgvede shea Wedd bensee ees dverdags th teoleee] ag
In this order are six British species of Bulla (the rarest, four of! :
them being late additions), which have not a place in the Irish
catalogue :—one species included only in the latter is believed
to be new. Elysia viridis (Aplysia viridis, Flem., Brit. Anim.),
a singular species discovered by Montagu in Devonshire, is the
remaining desideratum.
Class GASTEROPODA.
Order Pulmonifera Inoperculata.
Fam. Limacide.
Arion ater, Lin., (Sp.)«sevsecessasee Srigdhidaceedede ces cree tatsaae hal stasne iv pane gdiid ie) ceil
el, ARLEDSIN MM ON"« tok ab Rasnatsesacndo as ans secaxtaderscntticathhs <aunearaaent sr i i\saes ae
Geomalacus maculosust, Allman (1.) .ce....eeeee oe Gas cocncs# cvenccar te suecalssnlanateas %
Limax maximus, Din.; L. cinereus, Drap. .......cscscscssecececscececsceceves + ba ba he
ae BEDORCUS, Bouchard |. cacccosscvoncessscrestanvencacvedace EEL B Ee slalulx
». flavus, Lin., Drap., ; L. variegatus, Fer. ....0.cscccssucssaceseee SES Pg Po [he
ye BSreStIS, Lian. coc. cecerns-scnnnsts Ro eat ea Chet tenes ied canailchocccoxseseessy’ sae | se Nae: | Oe
» Carinatus, Leach; L. Sowerbii, Fer. ...cs.seseccseees Bes ghaweenrawecaneel tae i
op - Pagates, Drap.f (1.)......scrccccossecsserecssenssovcscarseconsessnseosces [ane pl ae
Testacellus haliotideus, Fer. .....cceccccscccsesssvessecs Lodecatca cassdevistech gecs[dlslasctees ¥
Fam. Helicide.
Vitrina pellucida, Mull. (sp.) .....-...++ peasmeaa’ sasseeetec Saraivas (eertcstosnaeee Msg all
Helix aspersa, Mull. ...csessceeseeeeee pesuegans vewegy ewogges teas year Gastese swoop lag fixe ly
»» hortensis, Lister .......-.eeeeseeesees sb ecsedaacecesancd Bed eb voecececcavense el ei leeel ge
x» Nemoralis, Lin. ...scccccseseseces ddcecsaacseuss sansaccuudaueds secddnccessesesl ge lal am |g
doe QUDGSCOLUM, Be cccccnceccucnesssnevscoesenssguosceesscess eves el Sabecteaved li [oma]
jp PUlchella, Mall... coocssccerrctensroaneaeerecscsernecernedas Fdeaaandadey ag at | data he
pi tuscay, Mott. cage? Socttacs Piagthaities <cukaas ast Gifosaenaee dsacuee cas Pocb alta | tues ee
ee AULVED: We | wanduvacecr steals otinay scveco.e 04 wa teacene sen tuai ap tein artim oolalelale
* The species to which specific names are not applied are unknown as British, and
cannot be identified in the many works referred to; all of them have been seen by
Mr. Alder, and are unknown to him, as are the few which have been seen by Pro-
fessor Edw. Forbes to him also. They, together with the species to which manuscript
names have been applied, will be described in the Annals of Natural History.
+ See Proceedings of Section Zoology and Botany at Cork Meeting, present volume.
¢ See Annals Nat. Hist. vol. vi. p. 204 and 205, and same work, vol. xii. (Novem-
ber 1843) article by Rev, B. J. Clarke, “On the species of Zimax found in Ireland,”
oO at
Sl seer <<
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 253
Distribution.
Class GASTEROPODA. aa nell id
Order Pulmonifera Inoperculata. Zlels 3
he ee ala
ete BOWLCAtG AMGlls Dip wngsenubeWeisersiocceredeenecennancdad itacada lh adres swale | ae del
» lamellata, Jeff.; H,. Scarburgensis, Bean. ....cccsscecceees einen iasenia we |e | ae | x
» granulata, Alder.; H. hispida, AZond, .....ccscsessccssresssseeren Se RRR iat aint Voge [hae
yy hispida, Mull... csssscrereacesesti Heh cbish INERT’ cde bahedzphoowans hacen # | * |e | x
var. sericea, Mull. ......scecee0e jundeassecenas » debate hadbioeeas RAVIAMAL ASS Pein
var, Concinna, Jeff. .cs.csccerecene ae padiaiasiaiane's aoe eke wek peed ne giteas seal ae! (Or [akil ae
y Tufescens, Penn., Mont....ccccccccsccecere ciachian gate Wataacye wedduccaadase a|*la&| *
» pisana, Mull.; H. cingenda, Mont.......csssccecscsesesecsensecees qaduedaldabli®
» virgata, Mont. ; H. variabilis, Drap. ...ccsccscsoccesscsceeasonsnesens cool xe |e |e |e
2» caperata, Mant. s\ Ta Strata, Drips ciasscessrisanesiei> dander’ basdairaWaee coe] ae feeel
» ericetorum, Mull. dabieais nde bins dents et OS WchonGdbaddpbute ach supocdathuagtddenline | Ina’ | x
ys, rotundata, JZull.; HF, radiata, Dont. sirecncconsnusncsnencocddddaeccanial ae | |e |e
», umbilicata, Mont. ; H. 3 aah Senet SURV actecdaandssGeadbwideachasal on | a |x |
ao PYG MRA, Drap.rereccccassrevcveeccerees MA WANa ah RAKae sudabhacdingd Gachasl de (ae lide | ak
? alliaria, Miller arrow ereresees SPOOR Kem es Oo EHO Heeeeeessesseeoesceesosseseres| K | KE | HK |
» cellaria, Mull.; H. itiday DrAp.cerndscasxennanees cAannanaoghdhenesdeune ale be Lae Lae
Jae) DUB ALGER.) avtnnsanasesacncen wevcstledbhedes cd @Pi¥e¥ecti axpakhbeusecddecee dente |ioe lak | ae
» nitidula, Drap. seedese Peaccveerscvece Andee eee ebevereesteeeneces ee veeevecces cool me | ® | oe | *
» radiatula, Alder, .....cc00e ininhitwes paagane fie aia aedttcaeaancunaice Wawdeie| xe | % | ae he
Pe AMOU As OTA sie vagaesceateancaeassaunies i sthio tune Sdewacuantenatas adiehbuieas ie | [eee] xe
ya EXCAVALA,. BEAM ouceacodseccdarcees eee pice. o PE, FOP, Oke 5 hae ah er dor|eoe last ax
crystallina, Drap. «1.6. Petr UEni as saline aguas Shea ca ei dud eh ORO ENS ME wins {iae | ae | oe, fae
Succinea putris, Lin. (sp.) ; 8. amphibia, Drap. Hae Sri po ice epee er Eee a|*|#|
ae Pfeifferi, Rossm.; S. gracilis, Alder ........ccccscscececnscncscereens x | * |e |
Bulimus obscurus, Mull. (sp.) AUR STIR AL RANA £5, Reet Ue One Rds oa al*
_ acutus, Brug.; B. fasciatus, Penn. (Sp.) s.scssccssecscscsctoensaens x lela]
45 lubricus, Mull. (Sp.) scscccsceceseveeeeees Peete ren hale Hi cede awa aly wx | *l ale
Achatina acicula, Lam, ...ccsesceseeeses rere maddsea (ims eae haeded idvilcal ae | welw
Pupa wmbilicatay Drape ciaselivsacy»<dadenvecnces.sajecasaadesadh ogeads-(ayaaars cool ae foe fae |e
g30 Amglica, er. (Sp.)sveenaceress ce nisatacindasjanciestaccaaana dacmntetueheatcans Set x |e | am Le
eMumanminates! Pia. tence secucesaeseessaisny vende ieee cecaneeyatacae aoe Aa x lel el x
Vertigo edentula, Drap. (Sp.)......11sse0ee ieeertvecs aes: Ecccnmbaanenieubeiceaden ae | & [ened x
go Pygmaca, Fer. oo. eesecsersereversseneessenes SEE EL FELL) CH Bec eeee Ee «| *|*| x
», substriata, Jeff. Gray’s ed. “Tort. Maa. ; V. sexdentata, Tart. }
Manes, SONA eich co RRP Re RUE EAL Ee ee RBI SR abc a
», palustris, Leach; V. septemdentata, Fer, Vi gee badd ddbne kfatikee wel ge | ae free] xe
» pusilla, Mull. ; Pupa vertigo, Drap.essesersscereeers dj. asiaavieseana coeeel ge |e] x
angustior, Jeff. ; Pupa vertigo, Monte ...ssseseeee neaeentaniga decwedo sas caeftee]
Balzea perversa, UE BAL oN sIN. | bitin Mb auraigsai duct bade on ei de alte ¢ ign pnetbal a ie Teck
Clausilia bidens, Mull. (sp.) .1......-sessserscerccesseccsseeeenseessseesassceseees z
¥ nigricans, Pult., P Dillis (p.) C. rugosa, Drap. ...... seamen epaens «| *l*]*
Fam. Auriculade.
Carychium minimum, Mull. ............ WUE TET IT el Pct u dbase ciwadsecwssscecses «| elele
Acme fusca, Boys § Walker (sp.) ; Marini lineata, Drap..essccccereee cole lalate
Auricula denticulata, Mont. (sp.); A. personata, Desh., Lam.icscseseas ade) ge die loos] x
»» bidentata, Mont. (sp.) 3 Ber. ccscccsccecestseccecesace aden) edddsaaet slg fal al x
Sl Be GTMeR(SP).)) canine lecearsasdaavouresdsacsacaannnesawitsedeeeassuauad Peace
? ,, fusiformis, Turé. (sp.); Vol. fusiformis, Turt. Conch. Dict. p- 251),..1 % |
Fam. Limneade.
Limneus auricularius, Mont. (sp.) ....+ sy ahs VED by
3 pereger, Mont. (sp.) i yadieence + one species, W. Tresesesesee, age em, 1 ee
» involutus, Harvey, Ann. N. H. vol. v. P. 22. is I (i) dattaes| said slip
> stagnalis, Mont, (sp.) enone eter eeee POR e reer ereneseeeaaseserae feces cool x | LR)
254 REPORT—1843.
Distribution,
Class GASTEROPODA. arate
Order Pulmonifera Inoperculata. ¢ a|3 F
Fam. Limneade. tania dled
Tammens palustrisyclMontes(Sp.) vewewsestoevecns oss ve vnsweasseds oe «| «| ele
_ truncatulus, Mull. (sp.) ; L. fossarius, Mont. (sp.)' ii me atetigte
PUSAN OD emteghayeeba enviar vive costar vos allcdewees ies dae vy seks aaaeiRe
ts glaber, Mull. (sp.) ; L. elongatus, Drap. .....cccsccveseseecsveenes acthaaplenel ap
Amphipeplea glutinosa, Mull. (SDs) Piesknas Sobinepvobvineee's wabwoereaeienasahneedilten *
Ancylus finyiatilis, TVGLUL, GLU AD vy axciaanameenteamechsoviherienieniasoeesteeMeackined xe | & |e |e
» lacustris, Mull., “Drap Vatu /Siotaalslete ad os tde!o win ain aieeerier det Maevlae duetas ty oa iele «|e | ele
Physa fontinalis, Mont. (Sp.)..cssssseceveeeee aanuicc cna WORUAE av eee ste eamedasge exe) | ae |
35 tees MYRMOLUM, MORE. 1 (SP Vin wpinwinenincciowa che dees svete clon cees ov eltese eset batakam elelel«
Planorbis corneus, Mont. (sp.) .s....++ sawicin dha tab acdedtnbevestanesottee Wewité wily
vs albus, Mull.; P. hispidus, one shivrawiekie ciwevieemoabn «tent amidase x |e | |
a NAYES 5 -ALMOM ipnisesial wiattioiaiew sButeragms allie setae teach tases oe cee aes eR *
e, imbricatus, Mull.; P. Bx Dapottesevcodes «pace waeeegbeRit x |e be]
a carinatus, ET ee ee Pee e renee ee ees eeeesereeneeteeesessesesens * | | we | *
5s umbilicatus, Mull.; P. marginatus, Drap. .....sscecscseseeeeneees xl |e]
a VOTER IVIL La wcotibh kepmmnctentinxwints us san ante tint ewinoiceiels tale opiattwciales inte ee | eli
ra spirorbis, Mull. P. vortex, 6 Drop sc vsuesecoeceivsics oodvee Gass) gla] of sk
* nitidus, Mull. ; ’P, fontanus, Mont. (sp.); P. eu
Dieta haat igi ac Sintec esis Rca dbcussndticesxitee BOL eax *,|*
Seen LVR ca dakae anette recreate sein acidic wlataidies Seebicc wceae’ Ge cb acne %*
The Pulmonifera of Ireland being treated of very fully in he sixth
volume of the Annals of Natural History, it need only be stated here, that
the British catalogue contains nineteen species}, which are not in the Irish,
and the latter three, which are not in the former. These are Vit driers
maculosus, Limax gagates, and Limneus involutus; the Limax arboreus,
though unpublished as a British species, is not included, as I have found it to
be as common in Ayrshire and the Isle of Wight, as in Ireland. The generic
forms which have not a place in the Irish catalogue are Azeca and Seg-
mentina.
Class GASTEROPODA.
Order Pulmonifera Operculata.
Cyelostoma\elerans; Mull. (Sp;)istiasdcce oss wevssccvcccetdese tance rueneancesassaselena Sa Ae
This is the only British species of the Order. A single speci-
men of the Cyclostoma productum is stated by Dr. Turton to have
been found by himself in the west of Ireland. Manual Brit.
Land, &e. Shells, p. 94.
Class GASTEROPODA.
Order Pectinibranchiata.
Fam. Turbinide.
Eulimapolita; -Pulé,-Moné: ap.) cies Avcevecdecscisevcevsctecoosee Pecbocgona Pa ae bee
»5'° eubulata, Don.ep!) 5 Ee bilineata, Jeff... .ves.0.s...ccaceserecevcess Peake ahs
», distorta, Phil. (sp.); Melania distorta, Phil. ([?) { ..sesecscseee eelenel ae eat
* T have been enabled to include the Amph. glutinosa since this Report was sent to
press, through the kind attention of Mr. Wm. Andrews of Dublin, who favoured me
with specimens collected by him last summer in the canal near that city.
+ In this number, two species are included which have not been found northward of
the Channel I slands ; the others are partially distributed in England, and two or three
only reach so far north as Scotland.
{ Mr. Alder thinks Z. polita of Macgillivray’s Aberdeenshire Mollusca may be this
species,
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 255
Distribution,
Class GASTEROPODA. ——_——
Order Pectinibranchiata. s diz 3
Fam. Turbinide. 28 Fe
Eulima? Jeffreysii. (Gen. Parthemia?) ......scccssesceeceseeereeeeeeuanneeeslons %
Parthenia (Lowe) decussata, Mont. (sp.) ; Turbo, Mont. eye heated te oatalatd *
4 elegantissima, Mont. (sp.) is RAE catia eet Worn: Pkg veel ae | ae | ax
os indistincta, Mont. (Sp-) ny ng tae tena tee eweaseneaes Pel 32 | ae
34 fulvocincta, Thomp. (sp.) ; Turritella indistincta, Elem. sasevee abel te
“4 unica, Mont. (sp.); Turbo, Mont. .....ccccsccecececeecceeeeseeeees aval ay
5 nitidissima, Mont. (sp.) ; Turbo, Mont. .....ccccececsesaseeeenrees wool ae |e
* ASCATIS, Ture. (Sp.) ceacsvsssoccvevecceescsenearsecsevsacssoscceoasene wel xe |e
glabra, Leach, (sp.) ; Alvania glabra, Leach, Brit. Mus. See iat Ne
Turritella terebra, Lin. (Sp.) sscccesecececeeeee sie sihayoraivblwic bea RRA PASSE aaaneeeee Sal Selioell ae
Truncatella Montagui, Lowe ; Turbo subtruncata, Mont. Sth cates tee TAA ral wae
Paludina vivipara, Mull. (Sp.) ..ssscssereeeesecaneceenseesenerenenccusecesens eRLWel he |i set lingo'| gs
ha tentaculata, Lin. (sp.) ; P. impura, Bane b thease te Slesc strands x | elle
Littorina communis ; Turbo littoreus, LU a tame ddcrdvaveadiecctacyswitteven ees ae | ae |e! | ae
Ps cerulescens, Lin. (sp.); Turbo petraea, Mont..........seeseeseeees Pe ee ers Cee
i$ TUGIS, Mont. (Sp.) -scecscecseeesercvcnseaees dao le Ihde oP ese % lie| ae ae
$ tenebrosa, Mont. (Sp.)..srssesescvcscecceeerseceecenees Nona betepaeeeeene Beka th Gligg
War? Saxatiliss MBCA cccevsicvcccseeaetisecsecedscccsevecsacves Fo gaeea x |e |
neritoides, Lam.; Nerita littoralis, Linii.....cccssescsseceeeeeeeeees eile iees lise
Pacuna puteola, Turt. crececcscersccsscsscnscnceseerscseeceseusseeees wert Dae na Ge se lssel ae
53 pallidula, Don., Mont. (sp.)..+-.ee00e Bealed cishileneniddnase bare comeiecsy manos wee nak ae
» crassior, Mont. (sp.) .....+« aes akin ceiamastectestss Be niciceionoen sonnet * |
% ie uadrifasciata, Mont. (Sp.)...scscsccsceceseeaes
; Tarbo vinctus, Mont. ; T. canalis, Mont.. pe Sy yal 5) ae
: Rissoa cimex, Lin., Don. (sp.) ; R. crenulata, Mich.? eRabeaere ees eRe aalees ie
» calathisca, Laskey Gp.) stacuesae ate aaee’ ois adc calcd SUNN, ee La als de *
» Striatula, Mont. (sp.) ....... SIA SAcbac can ehcaverdguaeEnotc de reacbe laws ele
5» Ppunctura, Mont. (Sp.)T csecesscsesees mavereestes ebdceaes ee Re. Aa Pale ee
»» Harveyi, Thomp. (1.) .......00 RSWRR eC ect ER LERA SRE SK Dae td Ba ats oiellatte Peale
» cCostata, Adams., Mont. (Sp.) eseccccrccsesccccesesenccecencnsereccasaeaees lag Waka
gx Parva, Mont. (Sp.) cscscsccscncsecececsenccecececnceeeesenees stedceiaeeceune el seNaetae
», rufilabrum, Leach; R. violacea, Desm.? ......++ AOE a SHA bse Ping neice Boe aa
» reticulata, Mont. (sp.)...... aden Big ua AURA ia desea taelte desire’ (ices ee
‘ vo SemMicostata, Mont. (Sp.).ccececcscecsescccecccececescssncscsceceeeseceseacal eae Pi ee
» Bryerea, Mont. (sp.){ (on Brown’s authority) (SUL SM Ean Hoc aedradngia ghd 4
» striata, ddams., Mont. 1 agi Rance Bee alsee viet viele sie sisisiae\s EA eek ge eae tine
», labiosa, Mont. (Sp.) «+. Ratha ted otewete sc sudtentaceccsise sR leet ele
» ventricosa, Mont. (sp. ng Henn ot scsoe aera ee eae er Reap ath pis cio itaten teat *
» auricularis, Mont. (sp.) (on Turton’s 5 authority) Mba suse stunetno: c\iges *
i» Pulvee, Penn., Mont. (sp.) sc.sse0es SRE ESOAR Et CHEE eran aatt aac adap * |e | |
ce ? subumbilicata, Mont. (sp.) ss. PEE Pedy. Se ee ane EI CECE ena I
» interrupta, ddams., Mont. (sp.)........ pth AaB 8 WURDE Se ies alelsidae wine Dele
» Tubra, Adams., Mont. (sp.)...... CEAPEP CREEL aN R eon atest ebeds aes sil ise
Ny vitrea, Mipnds (Span asntetsenmontereerrccwee dec et PANES Ate tee cai nitstactsactelelnete ae
» nivosa, Mont. (sp.) (on Turton’s authority) .....scceseceeeecseeteeeees|ens a
»» Uunifasciata, Mont, (sp.) (on authority of Turton’s Catalogue of \.
Trish Shells) .........4. Ais ame Be dents Bayada pK Wee, cuah vided ae asiee tse -
' , rupestris, Forbes ...... Vasdeeewals sonatas BEDE R RE aiaR Mia's site qnie'e dais eiaiehain see ape ilbe dae
» cingilla, Mont. (sp.) ........ » aes ot are ee Mek act sure cd be lesa gr lick
Peer, AAC CINS., (BY.) ss cessse0cqedecaceswe coegecs cacadenss SAA RaR UeRbe clenicaasth salted] de *
”? Balliz, Thomp. (d. ) eces see eeerecre ese ereeserssseserseesssseeeeeessestasiesrieer| eee) H
* « Possibly a worn 7’. cateey Alder.
+ Obtained in a subfossil state by the Rev. D. Landsborough in Ayrshire.
} Brown, referring to Turbo Bryereus as described and figured by Montagu and
Donovan, mentions one specimen having been found at Portmarnock.
256 REPORT—1843.
Distribution,
Class GASTEROPODA. ——_—
Order Pectinibranchiata. £\¢|2/3
Fam. Turbinide. 2 \aIE le
Rissoa semistriata, Mont. (sp.); R. tristriata, Thomp. Ann. Nat. Hist.
Vole Ve O8s ple 2NfdON screddiedsce Sajak iia vhaaieteres i.i8h3 ane
» dispar, Mont, (sp.); Turbo ziczac, Mat. & Rack. (on authority
of Turton and Brown)* .....ss.ssssseeceeese Ghib dudehdes cae dudads ri ‘kal tig ua
» glabra, Brown, Illus.; R.? albella, Aldeh sii caterers rir et decid sel ie | ge
» decussata, Mont. (sp.) (on Turton’s authority) ..cssscsesccscereees biiafhe shige
Odostomia pallida, Mont. (sp.) ....+. VAATED hos peeeRilc ales Wade sababieer cab tell lie hae
Ss unidentata, Mont. (sp.) ......++++ SechicaddeunsaGabaadseres aobbactelna}ie Vogl
a plicata, Mont, (Sp.) .s.csceeeeseere Shee ed vas sp ch dgeaende Veredecad seattle |G. bis
We spiralis, Mont. (Sp.) ....sssseee sneuaesetnacevecss Cava hce¥eskealtWeny ele
ws Interstincta, Morte (Sp)i cvatisacctecs deuivecveus tesa seacatbanwrales aeidbg
me CYMndricas Alden cassoasics sccvewsces Vien seccanss dedgeiealiBeescceeeetee ivsledil g
4 abliquas Alders « isacescetstiveda qitisellaesscstdaatedcaviadleaceibetea easel eeelg.
? 1.) Ate eeeenneee Pre ee UURERCECCCOSOCCCSCCOCC ECC SC Cee Te C CeCe tie haae one) &
Skenea depressa, Mont. (sp.) PU CLL CLC te CEe eT cirri. wakes Wak Ny Se
» serpuloides, Mon. (sp.) (on Turton’s S, authority) sisissdcisaevoccseed rai
Valvata piscinalis, Mull. (sp.) Lam.; V. obtusa, Brard .....cscccccees er aa a
» cristata, Mull.; V. spirorbis, Drap. ......ssceeees BH RINE el«el «el *
Fam. Vrochide.
Netitina fluviatilis, List., Lin. (Sp.) tT vessaccascssnsecsensbesdeseat iedtye eat sat hamelpige| gg
Phasianella pulla, Ln. (Sp.) «. dsescrsacsaccncnancasecdegtedesdtasthsastteem asaea wes heh
Trochus magus, Lin. .......s.cscsseceseees hes cavtin canes sO5s cast sbebdvseerraesened NaH aellrae | 4
ie umbilicatus, MORE... cas headie seen ERaEs one s comand tas cavadinss@eeaeoee alelabe
es MEL ATIIS, PCiIsS vavscciavcodteteee cc caeis Gh acennc Caadans arehoesdsasae aad fim fie ||
a littoralis, Brown (on Brown’s polar ity), <eaqeecea dese cksvavds caatat ahha
E~ tumidus, Mont........sceseses ecaneaneidae aces ree SG stbdacdandkencaue aval ei} | xe |e
» SPIGSUS, LOM. re veuncs sina sets sasassslaacyscrsiadeessh skys veeavdidcovees pathy
ee ziziphinus, Lin......eereesee dsdeiecccsen dane demaghe ds tbddecscqustdads« sade elle | sel
co BL ekSRUOrAtUSy. LCi: cnsusxucuuunssssssase-ccuadaeseusananeta sasbscdbacdaees haha le?
ie millegranus, Phal.; T. Martiniy Siittlieeqdcse) esos stete ats desseeaus wahg ee | dks
striatus, Mont. ; T. Montapnt. .¢-ccareasugqenaasstan sade sanet bac actads| cele bo oal
Monodonta crassa, Mont. (sp.); "Trochus crassus {..scoctssdcmetdsscadsrecbalaifig | a4) %
Margarita communis; Turbo margarita, Mont. ..... adee 8a ¢ua}-con cnekes sable |
Adeorbis § subcarinatus; Helix subc., Mont. ......ssss06 antes aasaaeessas site |e
Ianthina communis, Lam.; ,, IJanthina, Lin........scssccceeee <fostanebaacadabillade| g,| x
* RIP UA se Ota ane cis aauentenenceeesons dusiesaeiant qadsshe eabds ocucavatecitess| aes) x
Ne nitens, Menke (1.) .<scasccsdtecacetecase manvivans<doanst © vccdna.eceueveaigrs|ens|
Sedlara Clathrus, .Lent. (SD.)cctacxcsacsusesteucdsccceneaf=vey eye cere aesetces he | ech
» Clathratulus, Walk, (sp.) -c.e.ceee Senge aoaasdeee sboctacddscasteaddscacsatyeih ad] gabe
bun f o LUmROU, CE UF CSCS.) cas wadasen vce ascend Rasudssausede: caudacbdbsenatinan oh [abe
be 1 REGVCLVANG. PLCHC/U cas dcccacedecsnsdisn¢tacerancahs cade ckvechSssaactadhduses}iglheeslcoaline
Planaxis lineata, Da Costa, (sp.) ; Bucc. lineatum || sssesseesecessceeeeeees eheoahig | x
* Noticed by Mr. John Humphreys likewise as found in Cork harbour.
+ Turton mentions his finding ‘‘ several specimens of Nerita virginea (Lister, pl. 606.
f, 35-37) among the sand at Seafield, in the west of Ireland, on the Atlantic.” Conch.
Dict. p. 127.
$ 543° lat. most northern locality.
§ pr i ike Wood (S. V.), Annals Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p. 530.
|| A specimen of this shell was found by Mr. Warren at Bray near Dublin, and
several specimens were obtained by Mr. Hyndman from shell-sand collected at Bun-
& a]-
though this shell is called ‘ Planaxis’ I think it is much more probably a Nassa ;
doran, county of Donegal, by Mrs. Hancock. Professor E. Forbes rem
especially if the Irish specimens be truly native.”
arks,—
<2 ee
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 257
Distribution,
Class GASTEROPODA.
Order Pectinibranchiata. E\giz 3
3s
Fam. Cerithiade. Mla
Cerithium Pennantii, Thomp.; Ann. N. H. vol. v. p. 12; Turbo
tubercularis, Penn. ; Murex fuscatus, Mont. ..s.cccsceee f || |"""| *
yo tubercularis, Mont. (sp.) ......scesceeees re sasdunpmsitadececceraunl ei loeelieil a
si reticulatum, Mont. (sp.) ; C. lima, Lam.......... saanstouiaccisnees ela bgt |e
$3 costatum, Don., Mont. (sp.)* ....++ Bapteisla's olamiaa'e elaiaAiuts wialshaiurd spa sll a hal dca ay
Triphoris adversus, Mont. (sp.); Murex adv., Mont.; Terebra per-
versa, Bem. ssererseseve nis alot diese habeas na Pa
Fam. Buccinidet.
Piasae meticulata, Lii..(Sp-)) . snsesceyecasssterdestorndedaeeectvoascaveueCaewercesael telat las) a
» macula, Mont. (sp.); N. incrassata..cocccccsccceccccececcceecescs soecwen| * | &] we | &
» ambigua, Pult., Mont. (sp.)t .....00- ee Boece sae deeae sewceccsescoee|***| & [eee]
Purpura lapillus, Lin. (sp.) .ccecceceseee acnce ide badduslvaaskuesae Basen deaatens * || & | *
Monoceros hepaticus, Moné. (sp.) (on the authority of Brown & Turton) x | x
Buccinum undatum, Lin. ........ eee Seesadees Renate SAP Kaadee shines. sllelalal*
9 var. B. carinatum, Turt. ..ccccccccsccesees aaes ciatorte oe J free] ae fone] x
7 Humphreysianum, Bennet (1.)§ .cseccsecssccscoeeees sea eabreat cals weafeee| a feeel x
as fusiforme, Brod. Zool. Journ. v. p. 44. t. 3. f. 3. (L.)eccssseseee|eetfeee|eee *
F OvUM, Turt. crcccsccscees besten Aeesanieo dase wii clpecesadaswaasenvicnieon|sse|us% last *
x FAK (11 Pee esasanance aeeisles c aewanmncxvatindks ben accisaneacdoceles cool x
Fusus antiquus, Lin. (sp.); F.despectus, Lin. ...sccossssesssecensseees seeee] % |
», corneus, Lin. (sp.); Bucc. angustior, Lister ...... enacts ramet as }
var. ? F. fenestratus, Turt. Mag. N. H. vol. viii. (E. Forbes) ... f | *|*|""|*
poe TOUTICALUS, Mont A (Spe). dasic daverwessesbvateactdcusastchegedusvseedéutecevces| e¢| qileosla
» Barvicensis, Johnst. .....s006 aiitiabrati eh sieigabbieicce & aeciidaceeb ronttoast fy reset
», Banffius, Don., Mont. (sp.) ....eceseee aevelas Sap ee aarald aigaidiasersteincltae lt ae ties SEA te
Pleurotoma Boothii, Smith, (sp.) Wern. Mem. vol. viii. .....scceecceseeeeees] soe]
5 turricula, Mont. (Sp.) .scesccoeees eaatadan eee’ RE KE Oe Rasen tee uate wlx lel
costata;, enn., MONT. (SPs) <asdeduccseevssvascanccsseascaccssscasceee|ess Paes
as septangularis, Mont. (Sp.) ..sssecscsesessess Jaciswasencien tcwsedseces| geil acta itiae
a attenuata, Mont. (Sp.)ssscscececsscssccsscececcsececsececsncsecs vecveel| le | |
a nebula, Mont. (sp.) ...cscsssecscaeceees Stan cela stanatla soaaeaeee cddoos| xt [aes eeltig
ya rufa, Mont. (sp.); Murex chordula, Turt. Conch. Lae
PDAs YOUN Peas isd sseSeaceseds dd asta AU cade cosese codec pyes|* | |e
mA linearis, Mont. (Sp.) sscseceeesssenseeee Seaseeenaascteecscvecabceccetity | lity
te purpurea, Mont. (Sp.) sccsccsesescsseees aaeteen Snedvicess onvawees deen agal ealtae
ue gracilis, Mont. (Sp.).sssceccssvscscsscncceccscacees edepedadeedevaouteea| meals.
ite sinuosa, Mont. (sp.) (on Turton’s authority) .....csseccsssseceeteoe!
3 Trevellyanum, Turt., Mag. N. H. vol. Vili. ...ssssccssccsssceeseleee! x
”? > DS) seek sie caeeceved *
“ —. > — Ad) cchiieadivcndeedes ssee| salvar be
eed i —— ? eat CE) aise suinaaracnchsnns seslece *
SACRE ONG ~- Peters! (SD);). sch angecdaeaddvunuacevaxanonbaccvancceceiahavescosarel il gb BL
Semaremts Pes-pelecani, Lin, (Sp.)), ducasscasecessencnasacnssssconaraaacavesesssoes] ap fap | a we
* This is considered by some naturalists as a doubtful Irish species. Dillwyn was
_ the first to notice it, and the locality he gave was Bantry bay. I have seen specimens
which were said to be from this locality, and others stated to be from the Waterford —
coast, but by whom collected I could not learn with certainty.
+ Pyrula carica. Turton was imposed on with respect to this shell having been
found in the county of Down coast.
t Noticed by Turton as found at Portmarnock (Conch. Dict. p.16), and by Mr.
John Humphreys (in a MS. catalogue) as obtained in Cork harbour.
§ B. Anglicanum, made synonymous with this in Flem. Brit. Anim., is considered a
distinct species by Mr. Alder, to whom B. Humphreysianum is unknown as British.
1843. 8
258 REPORT—1843.
Distribution.
Class GASTEROPODA. Heese
Order Pectinibranchiata. Elg|z/2
os
Fam. Involute. A |B IF Ia
Cyprzea Europzea, Mont. ......s0.ceeceseees SPREE aqeeesecuseqgguoneuedscunspsaliielleiiiomliie
Erato levis, Don. (sp.) ; Marginella voluta ......csscsssscsceeceecesceees Sacec ah ag Poesl al
Tornatella fasciata, Lam.; T. tornatilis ........ Sabodsbecshevednacecceeaenneetanstiae tier lia
Fam. Stgaretide.
Sigaretus perspicuus, Lin, oni Bulla haliotidea, Mont, ,....ssessecseeeeel x || & |
ak tentaculatus amellaria tent. Mont., Linn. Trans. Sieur
Velutina laevigata, Lin. (sp.) seseereesecees Scenes Soest ereerae e-osscea. cosceeel | |e | ®
oc) Db Drees ebecdonciwanas renee axsnaae San bnnawas anes nciees Wal taninee Ramela = Lie
Fam. Naticide.
Natica monilifera, Lam.; N. glaucina, British authors ....ccccccccceseesees| x | | & | %
» Alderi, Forbes; N. CADENA, Mons. .cccccccccngevscovescacss macuadanleen e belele
>» cm? Ann. N. H. vol. v. 7 99. “‘ var. N. ‘Aldenié >? Mr. ai
im Hee cA Be pe BP ee Prey ae ee Seu etdelatk eA PP Slob oie bid Hh
» sulcata, Turt. (sp): Fire wclete ckddadtscqhidivevesdddiaivacdaccOdedcedeueae
» glabrissima, Brown (sp.) Irish Test. Wern. Mem. wal. ii. p. 532. }L. se
pl.<24. f. 12.—doubtful. species. .5......00.sececseddscccvenqecceanas
» hitida, Don. (sp.) ; Ner. mammilla, Twurt. dod Turton’ s authority)}..
Of about 160 species of British Pectinibranchia, 35 are a RN as nish ;
they are the rarest species, and the greater number of them haye been met
with only in a single locality—not one is of common occurrence. About 12
species obtained in Ireland have not a place in the British catalogue. The
British genera unknown as Irish, are Turbo*, Delphinula, Stylina, Flem.,
Volva (Ovula?), Volvaria, Doliu, Terebra}, and Assiminea.
Class GASTEROPODA.
Order Scutibranchiata.
Haliotis tuberculata, Lin.t ...ccceeeceee Hh Ae RENE aan scdendde> agtvasqnansadeunss| della
Calyptrea Sinensis; Patella, Lin. ......+- RET ae ech Oe a < aeiign a etbtns (ae *
Capulus Ungaricus; ,, oa nc ateee we cngusaacsi4elskesasaeednunad atagdanashaitce
» ?antiquatus; ,, sgl vanes an abyetinawates ssocaa sess Keapin bass shtneas bars tics
» Mmilitaris; CPU 1. COnCERT ECE OEP REPRO eer suasansaeaccdcassaiean tenis
*
*
Fissurella greca ; shea E apertra,, VOURGIs <cacadecsssuunneres i
Emarginula Geerivcep ty be SOMES a oe a eer ae asada dun re feast
Lottia virginea, Mull. (sp.) ; Patella parva, Mont. ...... SURO PRE sont
syns L,,. pulchellg, Morb. savesdessain«saceseny
», testudinalis, Mull. Pe Patella Clealandi, Sow. ...ccccceccacenees eds
»» fulva, Mull. (sp,) Zool. Dan. ; Patella Forbesii, Smith .rccceseseelecelecelere!
The above Seutibranchia include all but three British. species,
and which are very rare, viz. Scissurella ertspata, found at Zetland
by Dr. Fleming ; Hmarginula rosea at Poole in Dorsetshire by Pro-
fessor Bell; and Puncturella noachina at Oban, in Argyleshire, by
the Rev. R. T. Lowe.
* T. mammillatus and FP. tuberosissimus, the Brit. species. —Cyclostrema Zetlandica
comes under the genus Rissoa.
+ T. subulata, the Brit. species. :
t In Mr. Templeton’s journal, the following note appears—“ Oct. 24, 1811.
Received a Haliotis tuberculatus dredged up on the county Down shore, near Grooms-
-port.” Capt. Brown in his ‘ Irish Testacea’ mentions on the authority of Templeton,
that specimens had been obtained at another locality in the same county. Mr.
O'Kelly states—in Walsh and Whitelaw’s Dublin—that “one specimen was found at —
Bullock [Dublin coast] and is in the possession of James Tardy, Esq.”
Moe ee ee
t
Efe SWRPA et
hs
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 259
Distribution.
GASTEROPODA. €lal¢l4
ola |3
Order Cirrhobranchiata. aia a
Dentalium dentalis, Zin.; D. eburneum ..... dak et raga hish sitcst pe Acscceamess| bas lg
At Britalis,: lates Oe WADIA, UBT OY cc nspnacinda socsspgsciecs sea cooaets peliga aes
” Piriatwluris DurbnC Dy rt idsedaterscavacsevststernees Basssonael sececlccs hal ara
i semistriatum, Turt. C.D. (on Turton’s authority)* ...... cooleee| x |
The Dentalium glabrum, Mont., and Dent. trachea, Mont., which come
under the genus Cecum of Fleming and Brochus of Brown, have been found
at Miltown Malbay, on the coast of Clare, by Mr, W. H. Harvey, and at Bun-
doran, co. Donegal. Capt. Brown figures (pl. 1. Illustrations) three species
of Brochus, which he calls new, from the coast of Ireland, viz. B. reticulatus
and BP. annulatus, from the county of Down; B. areuatus from Bantry bay—
at this last locality 2B. striatus, Brown, occurred to myself. Naturalists seem
not yet to have agreed about the position of this genus; some make it Anne-
lidan. Mr. Clark of Bath (as I learn from Mr. Alder) proved it to belong to
the Gasteropodous Mollusca. Philippi brings it—his genus Odontidiwm—
under Pteropoda.
GASTEROPODA.
Order CycLOBRANCHIATA.
Patella vulgata, Lin, (var. P. depressa, Penn., Dublin coast) ......00+00-++6] x | x | 9
?
»» ?intorta, Penn. (on Turton’s authority.) ..sccscecsscscseveeeccees asatee F
Berd PEUUGI2. LAMsets pAvempaseeanasadacsssonsnacess ace pinche tame puch ee wha eees ANE ae cll
» levis, List.; P. corulea, Mont, . .-.ccresccccssee oS eh sg RiNae ta ngs oe eee ae
» ? exigua, Morbes; P, ancyloides, Forbes.....csssessoevseesectsvensenes oi
NTA ARCICH TATU, U0 uEioaieg uhaeebhueessss'scdGgicnnehaseedasusasdnsdnadsese vali’ Te) alts
» Marginatus, Penn. Flem, Br, Anim. ....essccccssersecscessensoees PadeaelR TG alia
Bee) TUG Lsiiha We LCI SM EAsSMalanon dena doscaKaaspsesan-scp ete adbos iieh. cata iE as
SeReMCIMERENNS sed ite SUNCTs (EA «7 3) aacadeent canes sans ruaienidehee aposnnasiesepecees Pa ee
ps | fusepttus, Brown 2s. ..ccccesscesegs 5 ee IRL cay NE eS te ce es
» levis, Mont. Flem. B. A. eee eereeeeegeseesese PTI eerer reer reer ey eeccveces| | KH] KE] K
» albus, Lin. Flem. B.A. ....0...s00. See Cea BG Fase 5S ODR BSH E EEC RRR OLE *
sat levigatus, Plem. B.A. ........ccecsc0- Nase eaei teased papi es sa vek lel lanl
The above species of Cyclobranchia perhaps include all those
published that can be given with certainty as British.
Class ACEPHALA.
Order BracHIopopa.
Terebratula psittacea, Trl, .....0ss00e Leelee eprntnde yer ot oa! MEA Sokauamaite aa slop
a REICH ETON Un ttanccebecemeteycreuste teaccteseatecaccnate usc. wepececen!
Crania personata, Sow.; Criopus anomalus, Flem...............+8 sae sagerceslens peal cne *
Turton mentions a single specimen of “ Anomia terebratula” dredged alive
in Dublin bay and placed in the museum of the Dublin Society. In August
last, when visiting this collection in company with Mr. Alder, a Verebratula
psittacea (sp.) labelled “Dublin bay,” was observed, but whether it was the shell
alluded to by Turton we could not ascertain, On looking over the Ordnance
Museum we saw a specimen of 7. aurita, which was dredged at the entrance
of Belfast bay. Crania personata has been brought up from very deep water
off Youghal by Mr. R. Ball, and has been obtained by Mr. John Humphreys
on Pinna ingens, &c., dredged in Cork harbour and off Kinsale. The British
* Turton’s Dentalium clausum is advisedly omitted as a species.
$2
260
REPORT—1843.
list contains but one species in addition to those named as Irish—the Ter.
cranium, which is occasionally taken at Zetland.
Class ACEPHALA.
Order LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Div. MONOMYARIA.
Fam. Ostreade.
Anomia electrica, ee aL 4 eatee Cae one Species ésccesiveesaddaccousdl mild
» ephippium, Lin.; A. cepa, Lin..
oo squamula, Lin. ...sscccecsssceceeees WITS sate doecenen ceeds ahve eenee sovccee| ¥ | * |
» undulata, Gm., Mont. ...... omebteeeitay aves aM edersisteanu ss os teoeee oo} ae | a [tee
»» punctata, Turt. poet cbige st aaaahkite cases saltewtee a aivee Ge ae Shisks tet cwmran Cate ofa se
» cylindrica, Turt.; A. cymbiformis ....... spose ea tbiakeodte cans totessunnaeniees
aculeata, Mont. ........+s. sialon cog tlie cuddee caine as suhiieeOeanuehwashens| MM Tae
Ostrea edulis, Lin.; O. parasitica, Turt. (young) oeeseesesececenevececeeseee] | # | #
Fam. Pectenide.
Pecten maximus, Lin. (sp.)* .cceseseeseceeeee ACEP ORe eee eee eeerte ceo ces| mala ae
ss opercularis, TOR aa scat ctew anes Fo SOB OCA ECKL, Rarusneveets sae aeeearen wlel*
var. P. lineatus ......... apeeane sen teens Ress svedeeobeebel gelprees
jy SINMOSUSy BUTE ciceveccccveseus peseeecoea Desc amenane eaape de Jap dvecccescee tae tae oi
»» Glaber, Penn., Mont. ..sscosessesceseoenee saadtocnisancretnceerbaecmenes selectors te
syn.? P. nebulosus, Brown ......ssccosecesessenees Gaensien *?
» levis, Penn., Mont.; P. tumidus, Turt.; P. similis, ae wm
one species? (E. Forbes) stead asennad neve iapaddeasvaaaceteeeanaee pa
oA obsoletus, Penn., Don. ...06 aeaaeaiolaniinse seats sasksateocbacese sens deeassnteed ei iase
varius, Lin. sp.) ascen Sr ReMSeR net aah oun Beciaboseash oseecsuey eve suesetea rae RT | a
Tamas fragilis, Mont. ..scossscecseeseseses pascieeeeaieie wibeseeectice aeeasthdeeats % |e lee
» tenera, Turt. Zool. Journ. vol. ii, .s..secscereoees saeidataceeavanseslen
»» SUbauriculata, Wont, (Sp.) ..sccccscececsccscscscscvescverecssevansenscerel &
Div. DIMYARIA.
Fam. Aviculade.
Avicula atlantica, Lam.t POU UUUUSEESESSCOOSORSUCSII SESE eee EEE * eee *
Fam. Arcade.
Arca Noe, Lin. Cee eee eee eee etseee Seeeseeteere PU PERI eee Tae eeelee eee
»» fusca, Mont. (not Lam.); A. tetragona Of AULNOTS. ..ceccceseecees sel elle be
» lactea, Lin.?, Mont. (the species marked with doubt by Turton)...}... ool
a”
barbata, Brown, Wern. Mem. vol. ii. p. 512. pl. 24. f. 3. (I.) vases
Pectunculus pilosus, Lin. (sp.) ; P. decussatus, Turt.; P. nummarius, Turt.
Pa ae?
Nucula margaritacea, Lam. ; Arca NUCLEUS, Lin. .secccereccccsssescveseocer| x | & |-# | x
o> Minuta, Mont. (Sp.) wccscserececcecseccecccececsecscsssecsasevscssevecsoee] g | |
» tenuis, Mont. (Sp.) --secerees Rat sateatsacacas oavuceiessicnde sshpnensenwennl enaier
»» © Nitida, Sow. Conch. Illus. f. 20 ....cccssecescscseccceccvcvscscsscvsssslacel x
Fam. Mytilide.
Mytilus edulis, Lin.; M. incurvatus, M. subsaxatilis, &C. sssssseeeeeesseeee] x | x | #
renella decussata, Laskey (sp.); Myt. decussata, Mont.; Cren. ellip-
tiea;, Brown, Tas.) ies csuscccassssabssuabudes>acesenbsonselppiunverebensesss .
Modiola vulgaris ; Myt. modiola, Penn. ; Mod. papuana, LOM. oovseseeeees
>
tulipa, Lam. eeceee eeeeseees Poe eeveteresnes eeecceres ecceecccvesces eeeceeeses
* P. jacobeus is noticed by Turton, &c. as an Irish shell, but I believe erroneously.
+ The specimens of Avicula hirundo obtained by Miss Hutchins at Bantry bay and
Mr. a en at Portmarnock, are most probably this species. Vide Lam. tom. vii. p. 99.
2nd edit.
ON THB FAUNA OF IRELAND. 261
€lsle/s
5/8 /3|3
Fam. Mytilide. ele Le Key
MlodialaGibsit, Leaehit: iis ietisisastetastasesebeccevcguecasecetecaucdscsvsvedabect|ousluee] ge [lg
hs SEAM PA cea cern ee rae ee sey via dadoet Sune edesuavatielece vee: ohalBsd eed ecole
»» discrepans, Mont. (sp.), not Lam. ...sccccccsscsevecscesseseeceeenes By al ea bl ek
», marmoratus, Ford. Malacol. Monensis, p. 44; Myt. cpt
Mont. (see Lam. vii. p. 23. 2nd ed.) ...ccsccsseecnvesseveeee J || * x
Pinna fragilis, Turt. Brit. Biv.... SaicoadieiecmocepO TP cuLoonguead| al ea acl We
» pectinata, ,, ype hes E BEC ACEC HPCE Soir btn aA Boa pe
» lnuricata, ,, PTT el (cist tar alts, hea Meriepo Pere ALN ee a
»» papyracea, ,, lace RECCLERCHodedesonste soadeodctin abe Hud cece
Fam. Unionide.
Anodon cygneus ; Mytilus cyg., Mont. ; A. cyg. and A. anatina, Drap. ;
A. intermedia and A. cellensis, Pfeiff. (one species) ....+0.,..002-. f | *| *| *
Alasmodon margaritiferum ; Mya marg., Mont.; Unio marg., Drap. ...| |---| » | «
Fam. Camacade.
Isocardia cor; Chama cor, Lin.; I. Hibernica, Bulwer ...sseresecesecoveeee| x | leo4] x
Fam. Conchacee.
Mapai Echinatum, LAM.) \SisoccvecssidcaciovodvecdsverncuecdsveceWenersadeccevasee) ag bag [esol ap
“ ait lonpatum py MaMte WWebvedcaievwveewesievsviddeadecusvavedsutedernevsidiiwerlesel ge (veal
Se tee HOGOSUIN, MMONE Sp reste doldsisideotaviicalciededuedadediwcsdeduscdetvesdsardcnecd! qe lise |'g
be CXIGUUIL, MONE.» viacnevaudcavdvdesdddcdsveddedddadiedeeddevecsvcecsccdoosedel le lige lige | ye
”» edule, LAN hr vcitentatarcsiderdeleve'sv's'e Wee ee eeeeeeeereceseccscsccssncevsaeeess| & | kK] K |
ay var. fasciatum, Mont. .....cscccccoecsecccesecesccceceueccccnscesceeeeoe] ge [ose] ap
ep te MACE SV7172.0F remus ainevirsedese ltlcscvecaierewveerdasceclacsucevecvsse| ye | x
»» leevigatum, Lin.; C. serratum ...scceceececcseeecssecececssvsscnoneee] g |e |g |
25(TA i setvelewene das Scuenepnaeeccbetetewe- aatee J. statectoerae
Donax trunculus, Lin.; D. rubra, Turt. Br. Biv. (young) .. Ba secdevels stu eeel agi sel al ap
» denticulata, Lin. (noticed by Brown and Turton only) .........e0e/eeo] x | x
Pe prcomiplanata,s Mons: csteveaswaucweees we omcaneedt curenssosscueteddscdulceeslcssldculeel
ACMA PUNICEA,- LUMh a0) «cio occonadienslv econncusviees'c'eeeseccorondeovssveceddset vasecelge
MMA DULL PIO. ih.) <wrsiseeteb ren adone satbacbeccsesustiddecdbeaccdceseesnwseea Cel ay Vay [igi ly
PM PASIITINISS H SO: ica Sevantndisdeduaalseatscusdetesdsrtebaliviescuesusescdmarcecs|eeall gy
PP MUOHACINA, L170.) \icabaigeaveudocbiunaniesveccencceseresGvcedsectuvedeoccdcabellg lige ileunliqa
pepimaculata, Lin. DORs} sseses:sicousvevevecsrscccuscaveesecacse se vasoullcublees|iy |'y
»» Ssqualida, Mont.; T. depressa, Don. .....cecccessccecncssenecscorserseee| oy | love] ye
Pa ECLUIS, PDO. ~% | s'a''slso'asivennisoa'vn's_aliel'sn'sW'eie uiealsvis'ab(sveebialswaleaecececaliececwel ig Iidhil gh! ap
» crassa, Penn.; T. maculata, Turt. Br. Biv. ....cscssceererosseveeenleee! | ge | ax
44 solidula, MORE s (take ncetsMeGhhtaebbGy ss oareieahaveacnitee rraeweie dosecaseet sal te [ig lcasliag
carnaria, Lin., Don. (on Turton’s authority) seeasaceesscvececcssceseleas|eoe| ge
} Bucina radula; Tell. rad.; Mont. céiscccsssssssossssccesessscssssvsessvesssess ite. | wale
» Trotundata; Tell. rot., Mont. . docapgoseiog Sogcenderbeodoscucstigseneoooagecs Red iocel Hee hen
» spinifera; Venus spin., Moné.; Myrtea spin., Turt. .....0....cceeel y |e |e | x
x» flexuosa; Tell. flex., Mont. ...ccccccoccccsecarscsccccscvccscccsceroescoel y |x |e |
Amphidesmat prismaticum, Laskey A sises d apeciaub sin deka eiupacays cadences ae ee
1 »” Boys) Dunts-BrsvBlVersy pancvcscerconsssiccscasecsecanonsnievecs seal We, [ye ili
» tenue; Ligula tenuis, Mont. .... PUdcneusleua> Se neids vais fasdeaiaisel
TA GESEEE PRES ERE HY SRT Rn MMA bony ct STC,
(typriin Islandica; Venus Isl., Lim. ...cccsesssecscecsersscceveecsessssvssesee| x | ae | ae | x
* As this species is considered by some naturalists to have been erroneously intro-
duced into our catalogues, it may be stated that Mr. R. Ball has specimens of it col-
lected on the coasts of Clare and Cork, and that Mr. Warren of Dublin obtained one in
a living state at Ardmore, county Waterford.
+ Montagu’s genericname Ligul/ashould perhaps be adopted instead of Amphidesma.
262 REPORT—1843.
Fam. Conchacee.
Cyprina minima; Venus min., Mont, ssscccccsseressessersersanecenenseeseceeneleonlonel ge
» ttiangularis; Venus tri., Mont. (on Turton’s authority) ......sse+
Mactra solida, Penn., Mont.; M. crassa sscccsscsecssssensscceoncsdeccosseasoe a
35) MEM UACatA, MORE.” ....cananndedventaatbocidscuskepacavged>snnsdecbpnsbivess
yo Bubtruncata, Mont. ...cccscsosesssecsvecccevcssesccvssscctervecsssedscons|
jo BUULGOTM, LAN. casescesasaccupeseccscocscess ae ey A eee
Var. Miz cinerea, MORE? Weesdest aise yececcescscese oocepthelis
Goodallia triangularis; Mactra tri., Mont. ......csseecsscsereeesenes cade gureadlliaee
* minutissima; Mactra min., Mont. (on Turton’s authority) ...|---
Lepton squamosum ; Solen squam., Mont. ...ssseccsssssseccessanneceneereeces|seeleee
Kellia suborbicularis ; Mya stub., Mont. ..c.ccecccsssscscseseceereseusueceeeees
x» Tubra; Cardium rubrum, Mont. .......ccccccecscocnsscccssscssscccseerees|
Montacuta substriata ; Ligula sub., Mont, ......cceveeccssesesseeecsecereesves|
+ bidentata; Mya bid., Mont. .......-.esecsseeccecscrvenceseresesens|
i ferruginosa; Mya fer., Mont. ...ccsesccesececcesccrceescessenseeeeaa|ers
3 ovata; Tellimya ovata, Brown, [llust. ...sssccsesesseesesenceecee|ees
rv purpurea; Mya purp., Mont. ........604 ievadvucsdied Validawwectouhae
Ervilia nitens; Mya nitens, Laskey, Mont. (on Turton’s authority)......|++-
Cyclas cornea ; ,Tellina cornea, Lin. ceesssesesssesceeeeeeenees asiaceaenehianes anweel tag
», lacustris; Tellina lac., Mull; C. calyculata, Drap. «.+.ssescereers
Pisidium obtusale, Pfeif.? Jenyns secccercerceverscrecesnsessvegsscnveresuaseaseoel 2
ad ADAG UAUITAL gad EM aso gies oeeieins detanaahiode Ane Ape Annee eudthaldys saueenedehias
a> pusillum, Jen, .-rccrccecencnaceese cesarcananecauecaansacecisae ble. ceeeneniin
a pulchellum, Jen. ...csecscesscenecsssetecerserrwensses saoennoasetas kuenveliie
» Henslowianum, Jen.; Cyc. appendiculata, Twrt, Man. .....0«04|-+-
5, amnicum; Cardiumamni, Mont.; Cyclas palustris, Drap....+++| *
oo CUMeTEUM, Alder ....crecessrecsecreccessassseessoveccssnestencscenssereee|
Astarte Damnoniez; Venus Damn., Mont. .....+...00++: syipacehy Tdibeveenmemkel tae
so Scotica; Venus Scot., Mont. ccecscsesecscscreeeeecesecceesseveenssesel
” » > (1.) PreTeTUTIPITeieierere rr eeeer erie of
Artemis exoleta; Venus ex., Lim. .c.sccsssecceesereneneeeees ove sbban bas anbecnetel@
», lineta; Venus lincta, Pult. ....00...+ ee errr ee
» ?undata; Venus undata, Penn., Mont. ......sseeecesesees clan eablia
Cytherea tigerina; Venus tig., Lin. (on Brown’s authority) «....sssssesseslore
re ovata; Venus ovata, Penn., Mont. ..... psgctbacans ancoumades cavetanlaal
Venus verrucosa, Lin.; V. cancellata, Lin., Turt. (young) ss.seccsseceves|
» cassina, Lin.; syn. V. reflexa, Lask., Mo tadyy. vous descoseucdeecendvar
o> Fasciata, Don™ sesrererrcencrass EPR ace asdaccul marmasinds muse acs peoeee cae
», Pennantii, Forb., Malac. Monensis, 52; V. rugosa, Fee
V. laminosa, Laskey sssssseseccserecsecssonersccssesssecccsevacseees
yo Gallina, Lim. ...ccesseseceeerseeensceeaeeeeeesecceeeneteee seeeewensaeeeeceetes
5, sinuosa, Penn. (on the authority of Brown and Turton) — «.....+0.|.+
> _ (Chi inves alte
GL.) aye oka lea
»”
?
Pullastra aurea; Venus aurea, Mont.; syn. V. nitens, Turt.; V. aaa
Trt... His BOVGCR sesazsescsaneesye4scpadsnesbnpeks. ovspesshgsnveues«Gafim
- perforans; Venus perf., Mont. ...... suc phaltde cQuks cbuaglts abauwasbe .>|rm
sa vulgaris, Sow. ; Venus pullastra, Wa0d, Mone. . civcotecccaveurtes!
= decussata; V. dec., Lin. sessscsssercreescscesccenevecetesecsccnssanes| i
oy __-Virgineas; V.virg., Lim. .scrcceceerecscessecncscesensesesnnersccensesres| de
Var. V. SarniensisS ...cccccccscecseccesatesesecesscvesensess
Venerupis irus ; Donax irus, Lin. csecscoccseceseeccesustecccusoescesssecceaces|ens
*
* * * *
*e* k& 8 €& H&E K€ HK
*
Petricola ochroleuca, Lam.; Psam. fragilis, Turt, Br. Biv. (1.)sccsssesees|seeleeslees
* Venus dysera of Bryce’s Tables, &e. is a variety of V, fasciata.
ee & &
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND.
€/¢/8
Fam. Pyloride. Lalla
Corbula striata; Mya inzequivalvis, Mont. .....sssecsvsee Mduaestesesuntame Olea te
Sphenia Binghami, Turt. Br. Biv.........0... Reeseaees ius Serasdoides’s'sesaictenn wet sal ple ie
Pandora obtusa, Leach, Lam.* ...cccccssssecescsenoees Sa atsint ae aesiecltiystele daacceiae #
Thracia convexa; Anatina conv., Turt. Br. Biv. .sssccscsesseccscsenceseeseees ele
» pubescens; ,, pub., a COOMMNE icant canere ete iiepians ciate toss noel it x
» declivis ; » dec. % bad Sxhaas Pde cethiet one vileba sen seal ge | x
» distorta; 33 y dlast.j of ” i sveoiernsan uncacklun hs teatnee'G AMR Avil ge
Anatina pretenue, 53 0 PME Riad eee ed ae Rascrcsts sad eel ae |g
Mya truncata, Lin. ; Sphenia Swainsoni, Turt., young, E. Forbes ......| %| »
WY PALCUOEIG) LAs, sears ccahewdsst GME edad ICeEBs vcauseocacagerddeee. aS aaee baesesl aeilige
Lyonsia Norvegica; “ Mya Norv., Turt., Lin.” ...ccccocccseees susbnaeaeecea] gig
Lutraria vulgaris; Mactra lutraria, Lin. .....secccceccsseseneeeeees et blk scliail y
» hians; Mactra hians, Pult., Don. ......... abaglés tide Se eee Tht ee
» compressa; Listera comp., Twrt. Br. Biv. .......ccscececsceseeeeess *|*
Psammobia tellinella, Zam.; P. florida, Turt. Br. Biv. ........e.sees bodeeal ge Te
P, costulata, Turt., syn. with last .......00...sceeeeees candbheelenath oo
| Ferroensis; Tellina Fer., Mont. ....... Seshviealistieens See eaeeel ae | xe
P| vespertina, Turt.; P. florida, Lam. (but not of British au-
thors) is the form found in Scotland (EH. Forbes) .......0s } cs
Solen vagina, Lin. ....... 5 Ae) eh Reape ee maebine none sabb ob dees SAUER vals #* | %
» Siliqua, Lin. ...... Pein Cepia reerea tad poeneebeite<g Sativa cwhaeed a eaavesiee el ge | ge
syns? S. novaculas Mont.) siccissecssiensbonaveess .sanssaectoal ge (ip
Hy MCUSIS; Lins, soc incesnany > wrasbad 2 5 papbphe pS qabieh wwiseesnecs vcqecoshtesieOewadslgyll B
» pellucidus, Penn., Don. ses.sscees Repbalkeat (Ear id aniien «cae vesewdil ae] ye
je, Lepumen,) Lim, sssvsodovacdssidvesner boone sas asia ike oa WEDS 0-5 o8 ARNE Os Rais of oll yf
pe SRLIGUALUS, tlt, LIOR: , anadeapcassoeaboeresnsncons Lima niah acaulenas casey el %
y» fragilis, Pulé., Mont; ssicssisvessoveses PAPA Os ere abvabdsccbs Vassovcear
» Strigillatus; Psammobia strig., Twrt. .cocccssccsseseees (isvees sbeevoasesfeee|
Saxicava rugosa; Mytilus rug., Lin. ; syn. Hiatella arctica, Flem. o.....:0. Pa
Fam. Tubicole.
Gastrochena pholadia, Mont. (sp.); Mya phol., Mont.; Gast. ce
Flem.; Mya dubia, Peni. ......02..006 isdavess beesib covey | *) *
Pholas crispata, Lin, ...sscssrccssservecceees Bison reo snaces ean’ baeveasvecl | ge fore] op
» lamellata, Turt. ..... bevadasMccdeasy sie ensis Praracoepinvecestorcce deseo ye
',, striatus, Lin., Don.; ‘‘ conoides, Parsons,” Flem. Br. Anim. ...\...\.., a
» dactylus, Lin. ween es eedisenceceseseenessstivesssesossasessssevesvesionssenses| | lauy *
» parvus, Mont. tuveesecs TOUT SPE CPe COSC rereeesiier ri rer reer rrr er i rT Tere eee %
bs | CONdidus, Lite. ievisddesciesvad cade sbactis seesaeteebesectenccesevenssessteeseal g |g level g
Teredo bipinnata, Twrt. ......... PRD Iebcces (Seescenduss cacoomeie sae Bosecsenssvsvvalenelecsdlig | y
PePNAVALIS, PAN... sssncwcetaasetaatas rarseieentauate ss eee enauessenspscwerscres Pollan ang ike
Xylophaga dorsalis, Twrt. ....ccscseeseesevcuees Hiebwiknits shves iibah iia dates esdaale ‘ile
263
Distribution,
* | South.
* * * * KK KK KK RK KK KKK
* # * ¥
* *
About 220 species of Lamellibranchia are included in the British Fauna,
of which 155 are Irish: to these, eight only—indicated in the usual manner
in the preceding table—can be added, which have not a place in the cata-
logue of Great Britain, making the total number of Irish species 163. The
marine species of that island unknown to us are the rarest there, not one of
the many being common, and nearly all being local and confined to one district.
It is not so with the freshwater species, Unio pictorum, U.tumidus, and Cyclas
rivicola, which are more widely diffused, but at the same time become rare
_ * Pandora inequivalvis (P. rostrata, Lam.). In Turton’s catalogue of Irish Shells
it is stated that specimens said to be from Bantry were shown him, but in his sub-
sequent works (Conch. Dict, and Brit. Biy.) no Irish station is given for the species.
264 REPORT—1843.
towards the north of England, and are not found at allin Scotland. The
generic forms wanting in Ireland are Lithodomus, Capsa, Panopea, Galeoma,
Unio, Crenatula, Neera*, all of which, with the exception of Unio, are very
rare :—they have each but one representative British species.
Distribution.
S\2/¢|4
$ 2 | 3
Mollusca Tunicata. tad a a a
Ascidia mentula, Mull. Zool. Dan. vol. i. p. 6. t. 8. f. 1-4. (Phallusia, Sav.)| , |...| 4
» rustica, = a » p.14.t.15.f. 1-5. (Phallusia)...| , «
»» venosa, ” » by eRe 2Oerta 20, (Le)! eteserescenenanet uh
» prunum, * ie » p.42.t. 34. f.1-3 ...... aes eels
» conchilega, ,, cs yy Po 42. 6.34. f,4-6 crcccecsvecees P
» parallelogramma, ,, vol.ii. p.11.t.49. (1) ......eeeeee seomeel
>», canina, - 35 »» p-19.t.55.f. 1-6.(Phallusia) (1.)|...)... _
>» aspersa, % + joe POSZt HOD LQ.) Meee sseeeel'y
» scabra, iy ts v9 Po 33. t.65. 1.3. (1) sesesecsseee] ye loon] y
» orbicularis, ,, , 99 ps OSHt7O. dy WS2e Ge) Nees veel y
» echinata, 43 » VOl.iv. p.10.t.130.f.1...... Beiedes cscs
» mammillaris, Delle Chiaje, vol. iii. p. 187. 197.t.45. f. 14. (I.)...
» gemina, Templeton (R.) Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. p. 129. f. 24. (I.) .
>» anceps, = ” ” pre pe 130. F.2oe
A. prunum ? (1.2)....ccsevecceseecrerevees ‘i
» communis, Forbes MSS. e
Phallusia intestinalis, Sav. Mem. p. 169.t.11.f. 1
Cynthia microcosmus, ,, sie WA Ato Bi feley(Le) ces ws sebevenee venta eh
ite claudicans, 5 pp imiplbOntsQetidiG.)enees. ssid Sal ee aeeaee ; i
Clavellina lepadiformis, Sav.; Ascidia lepad., Mull. Z. D. vol. ii. p. 54.
‘in 79.f. 5. Came e eer eee e ee eereeeeeeeesees Pee deeeerenreseee Fe eeeeresee Ce ePerercereee *
3 variolosum, Gaert. Sav. Mem. p.38.&178? .
Aplidium ? (more than One SPeCies) .....e.ssseeveeeerees setsevessee
Sydneum turbinatum, Sav. Mem. p. 239? ......
Amaroucium proliferum, Hdw. Ascid. Compos., p. 67. pl.1.f.3. (L.) ...| 4
Leptoclinum gelatinosum, __,, rr 35 p83. pless folie
aa maculosum, ef Ms 53 p: 81s ple 8if. 2.0.) 22),
8 asperum, - oe 35 p82..pl.8.f. 39) somes
rr durum, A By A p- 82. pl.8.f.4. (1.) ol y
Botryllus Schlosseri, Lin. (sp.) Phil. Trans. vol. xlix. p. 449. pl. 14 «.++.-! x
» Leachii, Sav. Mem. p. 199. pl. 4. f.6. & pl. 20. f.4 ...ccseseeseee s
5 polycyclus, Sav. Mem. p.47. pl.4.f.5 (L.) wccsssssecescsseeeeenees | |e] a
» gemmeus, Sav., Edw. Ascid. Comp. p. 89. pl. 6. f. 5. (1.) sss) 4
>» bivittatus, Edw. ,, PS 35 p- 92. pl. 6.f. 7. (1.) ig
In Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History, vol. vii. p.129, Mr. R. Temple-
ton described and figured two species of the Moll. Tunicata, and eighteen
more were recorded by myself in the Annals of Nat. Hist., vol. v. p. 93 :—in
the 13th volume of the latter work the additional species introduced here will
be more particularly noticed. My knowledge of the Tunieata not being ad-
vanced beyond the identification of the species with those of the authors cited,
the names are given in the consecutive order in which they appear in their
works, without any attempt being made to bring the species (“simple” Asci-
diz) under their modern genera. Such of Muller's species as Savigny brought
under certain of his genera have these added within brackets in the accom-
panying table.
* The introduced Dretssena is not included.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 265
» So little attention has been bestowed on the Mollusca Tunicata of Great
Britain and Ireland, that it is perhaps unnecessary to draw the usual com-
parison. More Irish than British species can however be announced. Of the
thirteen British simple Ascidians recorded, seven are Irish, in addition to which
are eleven unrecorded as indigenous to the coasts of the largey island. Of
the ten “ compound” species published as British five are Irish, to which latter
nine, unnoticed as indigenous to the seas of Great Britain, are to be added:
all the species of the preceding catalogue marked (I.) are probably to be
found on the British coast. So little of the history or geographical distribu-
tion of the Moll. Tunicata is known that the mere record of the species ob-
tained in any locality possesses interest. The greater number of those here
noticed are identical with the species found by Muller on the coast of Den-
mark ; several, both of the “simple” and “ compound,” are the same as those
of France described by Savigny and Milne Edwards, and a few of each divi-
sion to those procured by Delle Chiaje on the coast of Naples.
Nearly all the species enumerated here were taken by dredging, as were a
number of others (simple and compound) which are still undetermined.
Professor Edward Forbes and Mr. John Goodsir, in the course of their
dredging, have collected many species from various parts of the British coast,
a very few of which are yet published.
To take a general view of the Mollusca of Ireland, as exhibited in the pre-
ceding catalogue, it would seem, regarding the subject positively, that a re-
spectable knowledge of all the classes and orders has been acquired, and re-
garding it comparatively, that on the whole the species have been perhaps as
well ascertained as those of Great Britain. The relative difference in the
number of species (except perhaps in Nudibranchia) will probably hold good
after the closest investigation of the subject in both islands: in the Bivalves
only among the Testacea is the difference very striking. Considering the
geographical position of the two islands, the smaller one being the farther
removed from the great continental coast, the shores of Ireland being only
about one-third the extent of those of the larger island, and what is of more
consequence, limited to one-third of the degrees of latitude over which Great
Britain with its neighbouring islands (whose fauna it includes) extend, the
relative number of species known as Irish is as great as would @ priori be
anticipated.
CIRRHIPEDA.
The species of Irish Cirrhipeda known to Brown and Turton were included
in their catalogues of “'Testacea.” Capt. Portlock, in bringing before the
Royal Irish Academy (Jan. 23, 1837) a notice of Anatifa vitrea, read a list
of the native Pedunculated Cirrhipeda, communicated to him by Mr. R.Ball* ;
and additional species have been contributed by myself to the Annals of Nat.
Hist. vol. xiii.
Distribution,
CIRRHIPEDA.
ee Zs
~ aQ ~~
: Sjals| 2
Cirr. Pedunculata. A\A IE Ia
Anatifa levis, Lam.; Lepas anatifera, Lin. ....cccscccsseceseceneesaessnescenes Pepe
momeecntata, am, svar. A. levis, WoL. acadececesdeceaecesvoscackecsont >
», striata, Lam.; Lep. anserifera, Lim. .cccsccscecscecsecscvcsscvcoseses blaleke
* Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. i. p- 30,
266 REPORT=<—1843,
Distribution,
ss vey
; CIRRHIPEDA. Ely 3 4
Cirr. Pedunculata. bell a kal ac
Anatifa vitrea, Lam.; L. fascicularis, Mont. .sssssesecseees odetapauest Ceeceed eee
3 Stilcata, Dam. ; L. sull., Mont. .......cccvcceens coccscsbecvscncsetbbeccleas le Me
Scalpellum vulgare, Leach; L. scalp., Lit. s.sscsseceseesees eeavendobunsesenesl ae [ig
Pollicipes cornucopize, Leach; L. pollicipes, Gimel. ....sseeeseceeeeesenee bevesfers ¥
Cineras vittata, Leach; L. membranacea, Mont. .........- Shas On anaupbbnes ae a lie
Otion Cuvieri, Leach; L. aurita, EARL wivavciverseccs cdsversvewaevesvevcvavtiess x) el: a?
Cirrhipeda Sessilia.
Balanus costatus, Mont.; B. angulosus, Lam, ssccssssseseseeseseeesseesene| gp | ge leon] ge
» communis*, Mont.; Lepas balanus, Lin.? Bal. sulcatus,
Brug. Lam, .orscrccercescevsreercascesees wabest pases pati ese seven ces } ie ls
» tintinnabulum, Lin. (Sp.) ..seseecereees Meccsencoceatbdipresecreteseegs Slime see] ge
», ovularis, Lam. ; Bal. balanoides, Mont. .....0......ssseescscseconsees) ag | [ooel ge
55 TUGOSUS™, MONE. cesecscsecevsrsssereswoeseseseeesees bes iaseesocUdobwabdeclienl gy
» Scoticus, Wood (sp.), Brown's Illust. pl. 7. f£. 224 sessessereees gle
» candidus, Leach, ¥ oy PLO. B=10 sevesvvesstvnssfaosl gp
»» Punctatus*, Mont. -.......sseeeee sav rs tenes btn 0d danoeasmes seveuaersweclonel yecfeaal ge
» fistulosus, Brug. Lam.; B. clavatus ; Lepas elongata, Chem. ...| | 4 |.++| +
Creusia verruca, Leach, Lam. ; Lepas striata, Penn. ....+....++ Fists seeceel aed gh ladult x
The preceding catalogue exhibits nearly all the species of Cirrhipeda which
have a place in the British Fauna; but as these have not been satisfactorily
determined, the usual comparison is omitted. Several of the species can
hardly be called natives of our seas, although found living on the bottoms of
ships in our harbours, and attached to timber cast ashore; but by including
them here I only follow British and French authors. Some species, if not
native, have become naturalized to a limited extent, and take up their abode
on the “ wooden walls” of our docks, flood-gates, &e. The Coronula diadema,
which has been obtained on the skin of whales killed on the British coast,
and the Acasta Montagui, Leach, found imbedded in sponge, cannot be an-
nounced with certainty in the Irish catalogue.
CRUSTACEA.
Some species of Irish Crustacea have been recorded in the celebrated
‘Zoological Researches’ of Mr. John Vaughan Thompson, and his other wri-
tingst; by Templeton’s catalogue of all the species known to him, published
in the ninth volume of Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History ; by contribu-
tions of Mr. Robert Templeton, to the second volume of the Entomological
Transactions ; and by communications of my own to the Annals of Natural
History, vols. v. (pp. 221 & 255), vii. (p. 482), X. xi. & xiii.
The collections of Dr. Drummond, Mr. Hyndman and the Ordnance Sur-
vey; from the north-east coast; of Mr. R. Ball from Youghal and Dublin; of
Dr. Bellingham (in Syphonostomata) from the last-named locality; and of
* The names of Balanus communis, B. rugosus, and B. punctatus have been applied
to other species on the continent. See Lamarck, vol. v. 2nd edit.
+ See correction of B. Scoticus and B. candidus in description of plate 32.
t Papers in the Philosophical Transactions, 1835, and Entomological Magazine
(vol.iii.), and Museum Catalogue of the Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin :his whole
collection of Crustacea now belongs to this College, and is exhibited in its museum ;
the Irish species are indicated by the initial “ I.” e
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 267
Dr. Geo. J. Allman (Syphonostomata) from the coast of Cork, have, in ad-
dition to my own, aided in this department.
I have throughout followed the arrangement adopted in the excellent
‘Histoire des Crustaces’ of Milne Edwards.
CRUSTACEA.
lst Legion PopoPHTHALMATA.
Distribution,
Order DEecapopA. Z)alé 4
Ist Section Brachyura. bela Lal kal
Macropodia phalangium, Leach* ssesccessessersceserssesenercescemeecscsenensanel ge | ae | ae |e
Achzeus Cranchii, Leach .......... Bet tas ans beens x3 eiuaaphansha es secvdsdvacessevebalenslsentees| igh
Inachus Dorsettensis, Leach ...sssesscesrecessereceeeneees vepennesvcosevecusvearel ela | ae lg
» leptochirus, Leach ...... yc th ose naee eal a gs Se ne Ro ae beseesdoecenveael ye [eval gy
»» dorhynchus, Leach...... Soe rca er dapensdocpsasenecenesl ge
Pisa tetraodon, Leach ...seessseseeseee shaseloaanayseéchsemeer’ sevevedeneseedsunerss|enelacn] yy
Hyas aranea, Leach weccsseeeerver Seaovcnnaness concn tenses ceorevcteenecvecssvavecs] ele | gw | ag
ys coarctata, Leach ....sc.s.es ise tea enters weerenpaeeccecsosdugsastonavnsseas|: sl tans] ig
Maia squinado, Latr., Leach ......sesssersseeeeees soak gannanne miaeynch saped ian semlass|sselac lige
Eurynome aspera, Leach «...ss0+00 eee sans piaiss Landoaoatepbectssccersessdessutm (iam iach a
Xantho floridus, Leach ...+++sesssesseees sepapnopsteppepsrsrppnasee cvavsedesorsevverl ae | ig] @
» Tivulosus, Risso, Hdw. ..... Wake aaeanans eis aeicithce aa bie aveetndecanbens lig
Cancer pagurus, Leach ...... Frc (RCo FOOSE SOULE RE CEEE. voserisesevovenlg | alge | x
Pilumnus hirtellus, Leach ssssesssseeseres sseseesecerbesscconnacceeononsenessusressl ee | ge Lae |
Pirimela denticulata, Leach s.sssereeeee Asepapspnicsinnkesa sesabeneeadeccovanss| ye [ase]
Carcinus meenas, Leach ..csccevecseccsvencesecsesesssestessesvesssnssnersstecsneeeel oe | ae | ak | ak
Portumnus variegatus, Leach ..........+. Spans 5 ees wvneee| ae | ie
Portunus puber, Leach ; Cancer velutinus.......+0.esssseeeereees “saciid Dele he
yy Cepurator, Leach .....cceeesevescseecserenesesessaseeneeans censaedeseeron ela lise’ aig
oy lividus, Leach ..sscecseseeseeees RY eatciptabeiepnes EME Nees sadhieg Sasa
»» corrugatus, Penn. (Sp.) -ssssereeres Cha kdahd zag sh adehins deespahannanargh ig
»» pusillus, Leach ..sesseeess Hae Sis ata at Shs Tsy>neamean¥avonsnvagastai lie itin | oe
> arcuatus, Leach ....sessereee aap eaee Sinead ce {edb ecdepaneders ine anes bag thant is: Iie
Pinnotheres pisum, Leach; P. varians, Leach; P. Latreilli, Leach ....) ele] el
> pinne; P. veterum, Leach © cvveees» Faecdey aS vas) anegas wenshsO8qee|occlenslace| op
Gonoplax angulata, Edw.; G. bispinosa, Leach ....-.ssss.seeees hegrantoaendl o | altel a
Ebalia Bryerii, Leach .........+. Baacaawens se Renecaer Sacbedbeine stems ss Sy wabastacs a
y» Cranchii, Leach ....esseesee EMieeethdsicvacs dows vesncadoavehsdvsacede alae
», Pennantii, Leach ....... eS rsthist ane dnadua ies Wetseacuac caps asveops ben oe.| | x [eee] x
Atelecyclus heterodon, Leach ........++. sve evense sedeadcd nel eceaas sae pencce’ AES eel
Corystes cassivelaunus, Leach ........ NAV Ts eR DHERA VERS BV RMAANG Uae ce'scecud estou se talees|s
Order DEcAPODA.
Qnd Section Anomoura.
Lithodes maia, Leach ...csccscssssssescsscccncceenceeeecncnenes eit ceesevewecnse|esslesslecel ge
Pagurus Bernhardus, Edw.; P. streblonyx, Leach ......4.+. dsderseedobevoreel el ale |»
ao Prideauxii, Leach .........ccecescenseeecenseeeeneeees sevediceserereynagnetl
» erinaceus, Thomp. (J.V.) (1.) ..eseee Li RONG Was cveesse teal tralia eostovsl
» Hyndmani, Thomp. (W.) MSS. ([.) «+. ae a, Navsied wal acanak anaes -
», Cuanensis, Thomp. (W.) MSS. (1.) .....-s- aSaliakmanse Tce eabetes x
» Ulidie, Thomp. (W.) MSS. (1.) ..seeeeeeeee duidetsasvacs canetonsesees
»» levis, Thomp. (W.) MSS. (1.) .ccesesseesecensreeetcerensservecereeee| i
Porcellana platycheles, Edw. ...... pgh scuua cathacaseacedsepenendacesns Giawerseeued a Vast ak
is longicornis, Edw. ..s.ccccescersssencssreceesevecserersessereseneeesaets
* For the sake of brevity the names applied by Leach are generally given without
reference to those first applied to the species.
;
268 REPORT—1843.
.
,
Distribution,
Order DEecAPopDA.
3rd Section Macrowra. .
Galathea strigosa, Hdw.; G. ppinibers WeeUCH scocescosncsccsssucavuartere smieEe
» Tugosa, Leach ...... See cdensuscocecsowericconcensavescvesseccscevavessasss
» squamifera, Leach .......+... Bl os cinta ncicePeccnranosipsacdenenedcene
» nexa, Embleton, Proceedings (RS od Club, vol. i. p. 71. :
1. 1 eeovre Oeste teens eeteee Seetereeeeree eteeteeeee eeereeee Peeeeeeetee
Palinurus vulgaris, Leach ...sccecsocescesscessscsesessecs Coccuveccurocnccces noses
Callianassa subterranea, Leach ...... “ASA A Rataensec caida Saneuaawasenenden |
Astacus fluviatilis, Edw. (Introduced to some places. ) PR ves catee racers fone
Homarus vulgaris, Edw. ....... ebaWelue'elewectceas Geiidcedesdee edeele tet etae wdseee a!
Nephrops Norvegicus, Leach ......... ceeseeeeecececeevecesceeoes Prise: Savense
Crangon vulgaris, Leach ssesscssssecseeceecncsesessececeseseenees Pasadecstecetee
Pontophilus spinosus, Leach ......++.... wawbbestsies ee aWuieve'ctheeeses deateavens sel eel | ete *
Processa canaliculata, Leach ...e.e...... Wiohivascueahuvlesin va teacusulredecee sels PA be A *
Athanas nitescens, each vesveecesss sees SO ETT LOLS dnacosetclooctous *
Hippolyte varians, Leach ........s+000 see eels pactibeosckacana states cocecsne] |e] &|
33 Cranchii, Leach ...cccccsccesssevseve see elves Wedel vadeedcske Dscecaces|acotacsiens *
Pandalus annulicornis, Leach .....+.seesesees Aabaeaeeb ac elee eonanee Sonsewevewees| a Paetae ae
Paleemon serratus, Leach ...eesseseeeees To ee Seeehneenanees aUstiiestetnes alae] | *
xs squilla, Leach ws... wetecile’swenbe Rueabettbenchetsdecteceeder. Portas *
yp» MALIONIS) LCUCD sescesseveceeeseseees wecleece'se wees Sousucuccnsaserecnlty
»» Leachii, Thomps. J. V.) an Sbesheseeat Rh Geebeteti esse see wdvatstedsatncs Bee asd be
Pasipheea sivado, ‘Risso (1.) ssseeseceesesceeessenes aiawut ite er rrr xk: 3
?Alauna rostrata, Goodsir, Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. xxxiv. p. 130. pl. 4.?...] x
?Cuma trispinosa, oy s 35 129.",,° 32 f. 1 *¥
Order StoMAPODA*. |
Mysis spinulosus, Leach ; M. Leachii, Thomp. Zool. Research. «..++++00++|.24/s++/e04] #
», chameleon, Thomp. IP oyrosseatecs tees see? peeweeeae auscqcseeanecnenerene WATE cool &
»» Vulgaris, Thomp. (J. Vi) sicssseseesesseensececcsseetsesseeeeesseeeeces weevalnes babe *
Scorpionura vulgaris, Thomp. (J. V.) Museum Catalogue Royal eo
of Surgeons in Ireland, p. 229 ....... Seshegoresncane scene yh Se Pie he
13 longicornis, as 3 = oS os SHA *
”» maxima, ” ” ”» » po lleceloamtneslae
2nd Legion EpRIOPHTHALMATA.
Order AMPHIPODA.
Talitrus locusta, Latr.; T. saltator, Hdw. ..... Settle ead steaiscaeeeeeee * |
Orchestia littorea, Leach .....+++++ saaupenpmabaccastestxeonee pas dente sosecsabbac ane & |sos[eus *
Dexamine spinosa, Leach sseseseeeeeesee wabinas chevuesnevs cueecos'gasssceussseweee aclie
Gammarus locusta, Fabr. ..... ReSeaASaeWann tones uaasors Sueeneees actus teas anee ame pl cestee alia
” fluviatilis, Edw.t PPPTTTT TET LIT rT * |) ele
Corophium longicorne, Lats. .....cscsccssesseeeseceneeseeceeeesenesereeseeneceens |eeelees *
Hyperia ———? ee sseeceeceeeancenceesccseeeceeeee sss ells sibs Suacete senaNaaeaetaies « |e [ee]
Order L@mopiropa.
Caprella phasma, Latr.; Cancer phasma, Mont. ssssseessseserrerrens eheces|scalecabeest ou
* From this to the end of the Crustacea little attention has been given to noting the
distribution of the species on our coasts.
+ All my specimens from many localities are of this species as distinguished from
G. pulex, Edw. Crust. vol. iii. p. 45 & 48.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND.
9
=
69
Distribution.
S| ./3|.4
5/2\s\5
Order Lamopiropa. Lalla Fla
Caprella linearis, Late. a iscisicciessssssssccseisasaasseccasisssccencseseseatbateteds
Proto pedatum, Leach; Leptomera pedata ..ccccssssseseccccccsesecesscceseuee *
Order Isoropa.
Arcturus longicornis, Westwood ...... ase eiin a Moai tage ademousnaen toon edie alee
Idotea pelagica, Leach; I. tricuspidata, fig. only* ; Desmarest, rsa ;
Crust. pl. 46. f.11 ...... Pane nn Sie vshe yas mstse see ap sla sitey ic hash aches
» tricuspidata, Edw.; I. entomon, Leach ..cccccccccscccccceeccaeceosce alee e|lsg | a
» emarginata, Mdw.; 1. cestrum, Leach ..ccccccccccccccaccescevcceceeces *
» linearis, Hdw.; Stenosoma lin., Leach ..cccccccccccecessecce situ cisya obaial aif tpel etal
Limnoria terebrans, Leach ............ Aes ane car taseedee as Sakedls Svisieieldauisistel fs a |e le | x
Asellus aquaticus, Oliv.; A. vulgaris, Latr., Edw. ..scccccocecece aia alae etal tae
MAVEIAIOCEAIICA, FUT. cic .ceccsesecsecn ddan geeinds dened eoi5 ck ap TEA ie bes cies teae | x loool x
Oniscus asellus, Lin. .......... mass wa hie aistae wokalte cea said is olais Classi aateonicics widhiaista kia late *
re MUCTIECTN Dimer sess ne irece ss teehee Ass reas wis eters Sr We Ae Vee SST a lag
Porcellio scaber, Latr. ....... ASA ets BS enien rd naan can se aRiay ietiatstes ate aaliae
WRT WOEVIS;! POUUTS * dsdeec secs. maa dbistsnnn aaianaccains usiasiuite oe canencaae hans *
Armadillidiumt vulgaris, Edw.; Armadillo Mules ata ree sieaes beating Salese Vesela
Anceus maxillaris, Lam.; A. rapax, Edw., vol. iii. p. 196. pl. 33: f.124...| 4 |..-loes!
Spheroma serratum, Leach ............ Sree biasten Sb komet cnt uanidoneoen te Lagu? *
a Hookeri, Leach ...... Saneententoters Meialeles ava wae se anne aeneene ise wel see =| lag
S rugicauda, Leach .......ssceeses teases se Da R REN. cit ches <a detente *
Nesea bidentata, Desm. ... .cccecccccocconccesceccuce wadeaGanenalemits dtuaccavieen ta *
Dynamena rubra, Leach wscsccscsiscssssscsecesenes Spe esac noaGRER Sec bist apecebaee *
Cirolana Cranchii, Leach vissccssssssscsacscsccccese Here SAR BE Suacenaannes een so ig
féga bicarinata,- Leach .......... bo peace: Ac sponnnacn pete anouaebcec cree Acabenbee #
vo tridens, Leach sisciccsccicccccecece Sas eeR aN Sa rt Ree eas See asaisacltas someke *
Bopyrus squillarum, Ltr. ..:....6.63. suideeivs Metis sana NAS a cass op Sttsa SgucteBad Hee nail
——-?§ 4 HA He
” . Pe eecessecas etescvccee POCA R eee e eee eetdeesesseseresesseesesenes *
» galatea, -Thomp. (J. V.) MSS. |] ...cccsessssciccccseseescssceccceesseecl eee Atel lishs *
3rd Legion BRANCHIOPODA.
Order Puytiopopa.
maean eanictiformis, Lair. inact. ke apaatals istoalotacWine eieeions ~
Branchipus stagnalis, Latr. ........0. ReERNE! ost saaeterce aepleds Wide Laasahida cap *
Order CLADOCERA.
Sg DMG nc: 455 caer SME PMD Cas clues uonadin Oaseud ssedann conaaacein «des *
Ue OMSL MUI ns sR vaca cc hls ccgas sfilcus fapeaesncded oink. *
Polyphemus oculus, Mull.
peereoecce! %
* See Edw. Crust. vol. iii. p. 129, note.
t Genus established by Brandt. See Edw. Crust. vol. iii. p- 180.
¢ [have no doubt of the identity of Montagu’s Cancer mazillaris, Linn. Trans. vol.
vil. p. 65. pl. 6. f. 2, and Edw. 4. rapaz, above cited. See remarks on this subject in
Edw. Crust. vol. iii. p. 197.
§ I find a Bopyrus commonly in Hippolyte varians, Leach, but have not yet criti-
cally examined it. Two species of Bopyrus—B. hippolyte and B. abdominalis—are
described by Kroyer as found in the genus Hippolyte. See Edw. Crust. vol. iii. p, 283,
and Ann. Sci. Nat. vol. xvii. p. 142. pl. 6. 1842.
| In Galathea squamifera in Mr. R. Ball’s collection there is a species of Bopyrus.
270 REPORT—1843.
* — | Distribution.
4th Legion ENToMOSTRACA. 2\4\3/8
6
Order OsTRAPODA. AIRF a
Cypris conchacea, Desm. .....+4 Se Og ACRE TE CEPTE ECE Per
» candida, Desm., Baird ...sseereevess cadens sviqaNabsenaa « {oeuyanseheslien :
» EB aateeeeseneeeeeesnsneeeeneneseceeecuseeeeensseeessnenseeenees 2
Cytherea viridis, Latr. ........sccscesecees deeceere Meas Hidde) s esos 0 cduventeeennt &
spb ot IRRME Dg AEDT Sard acai vnideets daievitsewauatdas eae PrendeiGantets seeten paca npeetiebnae tae
;
Order CopErropA. .
Cyclops quadricornis, Latr.; C. vulgaris, Edw, Crust. ....... diss vane .
A popcorn, TV LT ae seen Sarees vos as puncte =ssataaansags bes suai Seis anaes ce
” 5 eee enceeneecesccce Reem meee eee eee eames e eee eaereee eeeeeene *
Cyclopsina staphylinus, Edw. Crust.; Cyclops minutus, Mull. ........+++: “
Anomalocera Pattersonii, Templ. (R.), Entom, Trans. vol. ii. p. 34, pl. 5.*
Order SIPHONOSTOMATA.
AFrralys PONACEUS, JURE To... .ccc,ccccescececrcencerseeboseesenss Peaekee caanane naa as
Caligus Mulleri, Leach ....i.cticceccscccscosecescssasccsceessencsentagers Peer |\y*
« ,, salaris,” J. V. Thompson’s Catal. Mus. Coll. of Surg. Ireland....,.|...|-+-..- #
5," -ScOmbri ” ” ” 22 ” teeleerlene|
productus, Mull. t ..ccyeccascacrearencennenageces vagaae Ee are *
Cecrops Latreillii, Leach .......cscesssesensesssvascseeseesceees pee Pee a S0ssilosaleneisanttta
Dichelestion sturionis, “ Hermann,’? Edw. ....cccceceeseesees eee E- ne ahasabllovs aealacclia:
Order LERNEADA.
Lernea uncinata, Mull.§ ...ccsecessecseeceees SHEARER re 10s CunaEe ke nds oad HAI
Chondracanthus cornutus, Cwv., Edw. ..ccccsecscesserseeererecnens vues obueiudslaes] @
ag lophii, Johnst, Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p, 81. f. 16 ...... siahiy |
Entomoda canicula, Thomp. (J. V.) Catal. Coll, Surg. ssessessseernseneesesfenelers ere] ae
7s puella||, va ae nf Tad Dea nagice v han ay cneduteaa pled Uonhl centre
Brachiella salmonea, Templ. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p.239|| ....-+++- Calas
Lerneonema monillaris, Hdw.Q] ....cccsecescseeeeeees Ty oP Lesewaunde ce anahheahlesclaas! ae
Lernea branchialis, 27. ......ccereccesscecscccveasseesse Oe Sbaneactacaeecesacereme wel ag st eaeMlatte ae
Order PycHNOGONIDA.
Nymphum gracile, Leach .......++++ RAVE bab Re ks aaa dpe heabees econ *
e grossipes, Lin. (Sp.)** ....sssscssseseeeees RASC Peoaranee rc accer ans alee
Orythia coccinea, Johnst. Mag. Zool. & Bot. vol. i. p. 378. pl. 13. {,4-6.,.| ,
Pychnogonum littorale, Strom.”’ (sp.) ; Edw. P. balenarum ............ yh Hs
Of the thirty-six British species of Brachyura, all but six are known as
Irish, and of these, one—Portunus marmoreus—is recorded as such, but the
specimens so named which have come under my observation are P. pusillus
(see Annals Nat. Hist. vol. x.) ; another—Portunus emarginatus —is believed
to be only a variety of P. arcuatus, which is found around our coast. The
other four species are Macropodia tenuirostris, Pisa Gibbsii, Polybius Hen-
slowii, and Pinnotheres Montagui, all of which were known to Leach as in-
* Probably a species in its immature state,
+ See Edw, Crust. vol. iii. p. 450. $ Ibid., p. 465. § Ibid., p. 495.
\| Merely indicated here; no author’s name appended to the species.
{ Foroculum Spratti is the name applied to a species in J, V, Thompson’s Catal.
Mus. Coll. Surg.
** A species of Ammothea is named A. eruginosa, and marked as Irish in J. V.
Thompson's collection. Mus. Catal. Royal Coll. Surg. Ireland. See Edw. Crust. vol. iii,
p- 534, for genus dmmothea,
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND, 271
habiting only the extreme southern coast of England. One species—Xantho
vivulosus—has a place in the Irish and not in the British catalogue, but Pro-
fessor Bell informs me that he has seen English specimens.
Of the Anomoura there are five British species, all of which are likewise
Trish, and to the latter are to be added four or five species of Pagurus above
indicated: what the P. erinaceus of Mr. J. V. Thompson is I do not know,
but the four species named by myself are very distinct from each other, and
unknown as British: whether they be all undescribed is yet to be determined.
They were taken by Mr. Hyndman and myself when dredging in deep water
in the loughs of Strangford and Belfast.
Of the twenty-six British Macroura * all but seven are recorded as Irish.
Five of these—Avia stirhynchus, Gebia stellata, G'. deltura, Hippolyte Pri-
deauxiana, and H. Moorti—were known to Leach as from the south of
Devonshire only : Hippolyte Sowerbei was obtained at Newhaven, near Edin-
burgh; Peneus trisulcatus on the coast of Wales. Two species—Pasiphea
sivado and Palemon Leachii—have a place in the Irish and not in the British
list. :
The Decapodous Crustacea alone, I have critically studied throughout ;
consequently, so far only can a particular comparison of the species of the
two islands be instituted: indeed of the British species belonging to the fol-
lowing orders, from Stomapoda to Pychnogonida inclusive, no proper eata-
logue is extant, and were those now known brought together and compared
with the Irish species, the result would, as in the instance of the Annelida,
simply denote how many belonging to each island had been determined, with-
out giving any idea, as in the better studied portions of the Invertebrata, of
the number positively, of each locality, or relatively, of the one island to the
other. The undetermined Irish species in my own collection are perhaps
thirty in number.
ANNELIDA.,
About one-half of the Ammnelides in this catalogue were known to Tem-
pleton (Mag. Nat. Hist. ix.); the remainder, with the exception of a very
few indicated by myself (Annals Nat. Hist. v. 247, vii.482, and xiii.), have been
investigated by my friend Dr. Johnston of Berwick-upon-Tweed, who kindly
undertook to describe the species collected on the Irish shores (Annals Nat.
Hist, v. p. 168 and 305, and vol. xiii.). He has likewise favoured me with a
very elaborate manuscript catalogue of all the British Annelides on record
with their numerous synonyma, and which it is but proper to mention, was
drawn up with especial reference to a comparison of the British and Irish
species in this Report. But, it is to be hoped that this catalogue will serve
as the foundation of a work on the subject by Dr. Johnston.
Distribution.
ANNELIDA.
Order 1. Apopa. Slele/4
. . = a
Tribe Nemertina. allel tal ka
Pare EANICUS L072 setcsdavtdeiauho+cescvanes gugeanecaaoaaces Can aheiahanmgadtae
emai ialng, aargp.; MSS. (1) ees is etc aa suas cua cas vamasedege ea} ssaeence) x
Lineus longissimus, Sow. ; Nemertes Borlasii, Cuv............ avasbavecit ants ele x
* In this number the species published by Mr. Harry Goodsir in the Edinburgh
Philosophical Journal, vol. xxxiv., are not ineluded, as he does not feel certain that
they should be brought under Macroura.
+ That little trouble has yet been taken to ascertain the distribution of the Irish
Annelides is indicated in connection with the first species named, which doubtless is
not confined to the north,
972 REPORT—1843,
Distribution,
= a
Order 1. Apopa. ¢ 3
° re Z
Tribe Nemertina. bel oe
Meckelia trilineata; Carinella trilineata, Johnst. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol.
Wie Wie Ste EM eas 2 thoes an eas Ciecs saat eaéncesbatsn awrieens
Prostoma gracilis, Johnst. (sp.) ; Nemertes grac., Johnst. Mag. Zool.
ONAL VOle Ms pPo Ours toy ode Le ccvessscccntecescceocscere eee
» lactiflorea, Johnst. (sp.); Nem. lac., Johnst., Mag. Zool. 4
and ‘Bot, volo me pabSo.\ til jaiketep setavdiscn sedis. pecee scree
» armatum, Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p. 236. fe: 29. (I.)] *
Planaria vittata, Mont., Linn. Trans. vol. xi. p. 25. t. 5. £. 3. sssecsvesenee # [eee
» tremellaris, Mull., ZO0); Dans ((d.))-tr.navgusses seivseash teaver sa aan % |e
* stagnalis, Mull., Temp. (LD) saaseces aebacasaceas exmeavas ane gketpentenmes *
ay PUSCHs Pll. Ulects cs «coe vcey veuste Shemini wale dus'waese aide Vela sven ads seliAe
Tribe Hirudina.
Phylline hippoplossi; Mail. (Gps) wecccevscsseusscccccncaccercosecescoecesnvecsees *
Erpobdella tessulata, Mull. (sp.)....... isch onset poets sce pad eddie bis ivtled devece vas] eae *
Glossipora complanata, Lin. (sp.) ...
i. crenata ....0. tastes veep pay ONE Species ....4.. reusvharaenaeeons ws lige
= fuberculata:s. avs >cacdasnecs
“. hyalina, Mull. (sp.) ; Beane Ann. Nat. Hist. vol.
EX eh agp Lend etle 20 eace sy hcescasNaecnaxpcasesenacnee tenraeeen
rF; bioculata, Mull. (sp.) ; "ee stagnalis, Linn...... sitchin eae *
Piscicola peometra, ue (SP) cesestaceesesceens ovecesee ov erces ene teettoccet tenet *
3 perce, Temp. (p.)} “Ichthyobdella perce, Temp., Loud.
Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p. 236. f. 28. (L.) cceccccseenes ios
marina, Thomp. MSS. (L.) ...ecccscdscseccsccees pbenaee siuadcens oa *
Pontobdella mUricata, ams(Sps)ix ax state se dslenas oasis vaso cn scan of scape geneeal *
3 spinulosa, Leach, ‘‘ probably notdistinct from last,” Dr. J. ...| *
Hemopsis sanguisuga, Merr. (sp.) Lim. (Sp.) sssccsscceccosccesscvcescescsesee| 3
Tribe bias
Nais vermicularis, Mull. (1.) ........ Peeagisdanre edn docstavssnds teSdeccvannsqanaeaniie
sp ps SEL DELEINAs VEU. scinasnsenidsansiax@uReiiéses ce oncaieisaeeieas Se Cede muenedtupab an asxal
Wtylaria lACUSLTIS, CANS) os dascbacovsac ysteadisecabsedicxsscemos ns adsinanidspuiecl ch
Tubifex rivulorum, Lam.; ZL yiibricns abies: WV descwensasa ness eeecnae caliae
Lumbricus lineatus, PIA: 8:0 3) aia het Maas pane sovecessael ame doeleae Bis
a pellucidus, Temp., Loud. "Mag. Nat. Hist. vol.
Vill, PML SLY FADT CLe) cy iedenedaet eee ce eee é
ad Clitellio minutus, Temp., Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist. [O7€ sPecies| #
MOLMX YN HS Diels fs ccdddeeaspudoeke andere
a omilurus, Temp., Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist. vole | ix. p. 235. de) *
” lividus, (1.). ” ” ” ” ” scoce!| ¥
3 gordianus, (I.) ,, is 53 33 sotecasaaa *
- zanthurus, (I.) ,, is Fs Je 9) .dhhe aeaee *
‘3 annularis, (I.)_ ,, 3 5 5 sh teTeaaited *
terrestris, Lin. ....cecceeee eae DHRU d ev dad Feehan sacqansteseeadesis * *
Cirratalus medusa, Johnst., Mag. Zool. and Bot. vol. ii. p. 71. t.3. a y) eA
PP tentaculatus, Mont. Gp. Wit: aaicicle scacacecs cudues Cemaemsisaeameheamen see *
Trophonia Godsiri, Johnst., Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 371. t. 11. f. 1-10.) »
Order 2. Potypopa.
Tribe Serpulina. :
Pectinaria belgica, Pail. (sp.) ; Peet auricoma, Mull. ......... recency
Sabellaria alveolata, Lin. (sp.) arco cudsiCrevstsctedtdecdtewhtvas atesedeses sees
»» - Crassissima, Penn. (Sp.) scssccescacsveceeens Meee ddddeveass cevedeei teal
Terebella conchilega, Pall, (Sp.) sscccserguessoencasesesenycavesedéausddcuetecsteceltguneniad
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 273
Distribution,
Order 2. Potypopa.
Tribe Serpulina.
Terebella cirrhata, Mont., Linn. Trans. vol. xii. ..sscccsessccssscnvensseesseenly ?
North
) East.
| West
| South.
Es cristata, Mull. (sp.) nr Rid An AR can CG BE OBE GORE ReRCACE MARES Acer gees it *
Sabella reniformis, Turt. (sp.) ; Tubularia penicillus, Mull., Zool. Dan. \
HUSQ. LH LOT heels davese seuevecccoes Seavecesesieeeeneeeuanan sire Aer ellie:
»» penicillus, Bik Baar an nS Aaa aE eam
Amphitrite ventilabrum, Penn. \ GME SPECIES ientianeeneadeas tes] gf
» carnea, Johnst., Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xiii. csssccscsescseecseenseeoesl
» tubularia, Mont. (sp.) ; Serpula tubularia, Mont," Mac dev cdadiuencceh sal skeet
Spirorbis communis, Flem. ; Serpula spirorbis, Linn. sereeeseeesereerreeeers Paes eae
yy spirillum, Lin. Gp.) Cisieee epee astes Seb e Searine Heit Ata ascnct does) ge | ae lene|
A granulatus, TAM (SP) casesaceccccncvecnceccsececs Lovastacnevaseeneas es e | ®
iF minutus, MONE, (SP.) s.cccvecscccccerccoccsccrecsrsceccccesseas PRE A a]
oy conicus, Flem. Edin. Ency. vol. vii. p. 68. pl. 205. rs uae ues xe (eel xe
bs lucidus, Mont. (Sp.).. esssecesesseees Retr. Sp Aue he st sinec adams nabawaaca af
Serpula vermicularis, Lin.; 8. intricata, Lin.; S. vermicularis, Mull., Mont.| x | x
»» triquetra, Lin. ....esceesees apeiaaiaws cata Be ssiptinas ere
»> Contortuplicata, Lin. ..ccccccccessccceceeerseee es. hon species ...| 4 | % |e] *
» contortus, spiralis, perversa of Brown, Illus...
» serrulata, Flem., Edin. Ency. vol. vii. p. 67. t. 204. f. 8.; tri-
cuspidata, Souk... Mae Teatro aarth Gere Ree aE Me udaeoaammes are ie] i kai
» Vitrea, Fab.? ...see. tdopignasberadeer Lagecesuaeesa snes BEE ar CRAG cICAC OGLE
Filograna implexa, Berk. ; Serpula minima, Lam. (Temp. JE eee tocareead le
Ditrupa subulata, Desh. (sp. Gerace eadckeas etna de rcsdes anes naece de der ich trocar *
Arenicola piscatorum, Lam.; Lumbricus marinus, Lin. .....+++.. imedpgetse| (3
Tribe Wereidina.
Nereis viridis, Johnst., Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 171. f. 2. sesseere sph Ralliiae|eias x
» pelagica ss £7 +4 172. f. 3 and 4......... apllewalate ae
» Dumerilii ss ae ae 174, f. 5 and 6. (1.)...! ,
» fucata Pe f we U7 Sait Clo), uacene neeal ty
»» renalis Ay tP bh V7 ote Sel lee camaae sean fe
» longissima a5 178. f. 9. C1.) .. oly
Syllis armillaris, Mull. (sp.) « bere eemcs Pteesaded Hitt io thbne. ahead menansdseedes Pi,
Phyllodoce lamelligera, Johnst., Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 225.t. 7. f. 1-3.) ,
a viridis a » ivep.228.t.6.f.11-15.),..|.. Fan
Bebryce peripatus, Johnst. MISS) iu lstiies.ccs.: BeeedaeaththaeseneGlereselsehasene
Nephtys margaritacea, Johnst., Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol.¥ viii. p-341.f.33.
Spio calcarea, Temp., Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p. 234.
HEBOA Tar CID), | Weuisiocioapicuciantidegee’ SUR valeeiAeainwa hie Sa te secoee PONE 1a Meat a
MPMBELICOLNIS, ERM. << sclacncaralges sinudle'asissiinacsaplss cesses wae
Sigalion boa, Johnst., Ann. Nat. "Hist. vol. ii. We AaOe ccdsecnundeccevavesene
Polynoe squamata, Johnst., Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. ii. p. 432. and v. p. 307.| , |.«-} %
» cirrhata is p- 434. iy
» Halithea clava, Temp., Mag. Nat. Hist. Ibid. .......-. cece ote: safe Sd
», scolopendrina ‘ss ae Ss Vol. V. Pe 307. sasovceee! y
Aphrodita aculeata, Lin. ....secceersseee be oak A ecka ce cttosese megs spaces! andl aoa
“ hystrix, Sav. ...... Raaewne Detecislnc Hor caseaciidscrsancaass Newarase receicu,lemeteas tae
Annelida?
Campontia eruciformis, Johnst., Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol.viii. p.179.f.18.] ,
According to Dr. Johnston’s catalogue, there is in the tribe Wemertina, one
genus—Dalyellia, Flem.—known as British and not as Trish. Of tyentyemie
British species seven are Irish ;
_ Prostomaarmatum, Planariastagnalisand P. tremellaris— unnoticedas British.
* Templeton gives ‘ Serpula jfiliformis, figured in Rees s Cyclop.” without further
remark, It is noted as a fossil species in Morris’s Catal. Brit. Foss.
1843. i.
274 REPORT—1843.
In the tribe Hirudina are four British genera unknown as Irish—Udonella,
Johnst., Malacobdella, Blain., Tristoma, Cuv., Hirudo*. Of the eighteen
British species nine are Irish, and in addition to the latter are Piscicola
perce and a new species of Piscicola > which is marine.
In Lumbricina, there is but one genus, Zravisia, Johnst., unknown as
Irish. Of the seventeen British species, eight are Irish, to which seven un-
recorded as British are to be added.
The tribe Serpulina§ contains one British genus—Othonia, Johnst.—un-
known as Irish, but as such only, the genus Ditrupa, Berk.||, is recorded.
Of the fifty-three British species, twenty-two are described as: Irish, in addi-
tion to which is the Ditrupa subulata. ;
Under Nereidina are nine British genera, Funice, Schweig., Onuphis, Aud,
and Edw., Myriana, Aud.and Edw., Psamathe, Johnst., Joida, Johnst., Glycera,
Lam., Leucodore, Johust., Nerine, Johnst., Pholoe, Johnst., not included in the
Irish catalogue. Of forty-five British species, fourteen are recorded as Irish,
in addition to which are five undescribed as British, viz. Nereis Dumerilit, N.
fucata, N.renalis, N. longissima, Spio calearea (S. seticornis, Penn ?).
' Of doubtful Annelides Dr. Johnston enumerates four species, belonging to
as many genera; these are Campontia, Branchiarius, Mont., Diplotis, Mont.,
Derris, Adams: the first only is known as Irish.
The whole of the recorded Annelides of Great Britain according to Dr. John-
ston’s catalogue are 167 species: the number known as Irish is 804]. These
numbers are useful only in denoting the species already known as indigenous to
the respective islands, and give no idea of the number of species inhabiting our
coasts and inland waters. In a forenoon’s search several species might be
added to either catalogue. About one-third of the British species were made
known by Dr. Johnston, nearly all of which were previously undescribed.
FORAMINIFERA.
The native Foraminifera were included in the catalogues of Irish “ Tes-
tacea” published by Capt. Brown and Dr. Turton, whose species have nearly all
come under my own observation. The additional species, obtained and deter-
mined by Templeton and Mr. W. H. Harvey, were published in the Annals of
Natural History, vol. v. p. 10, and those by Mr. Hyndman and myself will
a y in vol. xiii. of the same work.
Prey Distribution,
Spirolina carinatula; Naut. CALI DOME dianccrecagsseeaytesnataessauacy wets aulcatbace Ss
Renoidea rotundata, Brown, Illus. pl. 1. f, 14 and 15, ..cceccecereeeeceeeeeeelers * x
wd glabra, Brown, Illus, pl. L. f. 20, 21.....ceeeesseeeees oeconcensecousmaldas *
‘. oblonga, Brown, es fe GoRy © cayar ten savas oanandenanna deamelaaeleeelae
* As now limited, Hir. medicinalis is the only British species.
+ Dr. Johnston has since informed me that he likewise has an undescribed marine
Piscicola.
{ These six are earthworms of the genus Lumbricus (see preceding catalogue)
described by Templeton, with whom I agree in constituting them distinct species, but
whether they be described as such by other authors I am not aware.
§ The genus Lobutula included in this tribe by Dr. Johnston is omitted here, but
brought in under Foraminifera.
|| D. subulata only is brought under this genus in Dr. Johnston’s catalogue.
4] Many undetermined species are in my collection.
** In the second edition of Brown’s Illustrations (of which a few parts are pub-
lished) the term Renoidea is restricted to oblonga: the Ren. glabra and Ren. rotundat
are placed in D. Orbigny’s genus 7'riloculina.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND, 275
| Distribution.
slalelg
Ca a
FORAMINIFER A. ale e| 3
Polystomella crispa; Nautilus crispus, Lin. ..... rectinecdetnrces sda? saat aaa eels. |
woallita Le CUCG og AOI TECH A A lll delhi eid: lama Dial gr ye bt ee
$3 leevigatula......seseceees Wvacccledelecal ag
bi depressula. .....ssereeee ‘Nautilus, Mont. with specific }°"""*" locally
Nonionina umbilicatula .........04+ is 5 Bee Pr we vanila é
Ridadin, Weeniity 154be! race. scons SEMIS ETE: MEGS dex TENG oan
Pl HEGCAL Me PERVELEEBersseewsve Ur te aa hn, ee NS ae
me. Inflate S28. i0 Arh PA Pee J dat cates i
Lobatula vulgaris; Serpula lobata, Mont......scsscsccsesscseceeaeeeses pyiek obs ak «|
Vermiculum intortum; Nautilus, Mont. .......... RE EER cr cole lx lel &
33 PUNO EEMNA GIES nce ecto soped fess .skveoteccuacese sees tess eaqs sans ie die
$5 subrotundum, Mont. ........0.0s00+ are aoe ic are: Cre eee
Lagenula striatula; Vermiculum str., Mont. ........:.seseeeees eopeegiear aay \*
plobosa, Flem,. ...ccecseereceseenees easaaae=e Kesseecdteatess. ste beseeaneres oe
- TER AP CEN Sanaa atic cs ainiesin ap pins Sn paren ctuneaeg Readceua saonenae sctsast Fea late (Pegs
Nodosaria legumen ; Naut. leg., Lin., Mont. ...ccccccssessecesseceecseeeeees np al
a recta; Naut. rec., Mont. ......c..ssesseees eae Te arehebils a sic'e dulana| Retsline
Nautilus pulchella, Témp. Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 99. (1.) ...sscensee | %
a dentatus, rf be ae or (Te) seaccese ARES We
_ All the Foraminifera of the preceding list, except the two species de-
scribed by Mr. R. Templeton, are known as British, and include about the
one half of those brought together in Fleming’s ‘ British Animals,’ in 1828*.
In Brown’s ‘ Illustrations’ seven species designated as new are figured :—three
of these have now a place in the Irish catalogue. Mr. Macgillivray has in the
present year added eight British speciest.
ENTOZOA.
A catalogue of the species of Irish Entozoa known to Templeton appeared
in the ninth volume (p. 238-240) of Loudon’s Magazine of Natural His-
tory. In the second and third volumes of the new series of the same work
conducted by Charlesworth, Dr. J. L. Drummond published a series ‘of
articles on the subject, and in the fourth volume (p. 240 and p. 343) will be
found a paper from Dr. Bellinghamt, in which the species of Filaria, Tri-
chosoma, Trichocephalus, Oxyurus and Cucullanus, which had come under
his observation in Dublin, are recorded: also a notice of four species which
occurred to him in the dissection of a sun-fish (Orthagoriscus mola). A.re-
markably copious manuscript catalogue of the Hntozoa observed by Dr.
Bellingham, has by his kindness been placed in my hands, and I shall give it
just in the order-(though much abbreviated)§ in which it has been com-
* The ‘‘ Nautilide” of that work are all now considered Foraminifera, except
Spirula australis (a cephalopodous mollusk), Orthocera imperforata, O. trachea, and
O. glabra, The last three come under the genus Cecum, Fleming, Brocus, Brown,
Odontidium, Philippi.
+ In Morris’s ‘Catalogue of British Fossils’ just published, a great addition is
made to the number heretofore known of the extinct species of Foraminifera.
{ Dr. B. has likewise published some papers in the Dublin Medical Journal
and Dublin Medical Press on this subject.
§ The notes necessarily omitted here, are the most valuable portion of the cata-
logue, recording as they do the whole of the various animals in which upwards of 220
species of Entozoa were found by the author. These notes will be published in the
thirteenth vol. of the Annals of Natural History.
Tt 2
276 REPORT—1843.
municated, adding within brackets in their proper places the species noticed
by other naturalists, so as to present at one view the whole of the E’ntozoa
known as Irish. Dr. Drummond has also contributed several species which
were not treated of in his published papers. Dr. Bellingham remarks, “ In
furnishing this list of the indigenous Fintozoa, I wish it to be understood that
I have only inserted the species discovered and examined by myself, with the
exception of two or three forwarded to me by my friends. The classification
is that of Rudolphi, whose names for the species are adopted throughout un-
less otherwise expressed.”
ENTOZOA.
Order CysTica.
Cysticercus fasciolaris. [Echinococcus humanus, Ed., Temp. M.
eS tenuicollis. N. H. vol. ix. p. 240.]
* cellulosa. Anthocephalus elongatus.
~ a Temp. Mag. Nat. s granulum.
Hist. vol. ix. p. 240.] Py: paradoxus, Drum. Charles-
a pisiformis. worth, M. N. H. vol. ii. p. 655.]
[3 hydatigena, Pall. (sp.), Temp. i. rudicornis, Drum. id. vol.
M.N. H. vol. ix. p. 240.] ili. p. 227.]
[Coenurus cerebralis, Gm. (sp.), Temp.
M. N. H. vol. ix. p. 240.]
In this Order are a Cysticereus and five species of Anthocephalus undeter-
mined by Dr. Bellingham.
Order CEsTOIDEA.
Tenia expansa. Botriocephalus claviceps.
ys pectinata [Dr. D.]*. Wy latus, Brems. F
»» lanceolata [Dr. D.]. Fy proboscideus.
>» | cucumerina. 35 infundibuliformis ?
» filicollis. - microcephalus.
>» nhasuta. a solidus.
»» spherophora [Dr. D.]. 3 punctatus.
» levigata. ies ss Drum. M.N.
» cyathiformis. H. new series, ii, p. 574.]
» infundibuliformis. es nodosus.
»» setigera. = macrocephalus.
» platicephala. »” tumidulus.
» angulata. ” coronatus.
» levis. 5 corollatus [Dr. D.].
»» wquabilis. 3 paleaceus.
» tenuirostris. Css auriculatus, Rud. Drum.
» filum. :
» elliptica. Be crassiceps, Rud. Drum.
» gracilis. MS.]
>» pusilla? Ligula sparsa.
» farciminalis. Scolex polymorphus.
» Stylosa. Ess si Drum.M.N.H. new
» solium. series, vol. iii. p. 229.]
a » Temp.M.N. H.ix.239.] | [Tetrarhynchus grossus, Rud., Drum.
» serrata. M. N. H. new series, ii. 571.]
»» crassicollis. [ ys solidus, Drum. M. N.
»» sinuosa [Dr. D,]. H. new series, vol. ii. p. 573.]
» inflata. (Tetrantarus (Temp.) trutte, Temp. M.
» porosa? N. H. vol. ix. p.239. fig. 32.]
vulgaris, Lin., Temp. M. N. H.
ix. 239.]
* Species somarked noted in Dr. Drummond’s MSS, in addition to Dr, Bellingham’s.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 277
In this Order are twenty-three species of Jnia and five of Botriocephalus
undetermined by Dr. Bellingham.
Order TREMATODA.
Pentastoma teenioides. Distoma echinatum.
Distoma hepaticum. » Mmilitare.
[Distoma hepaticum, Temp. M. N. H. » Spinulosum.
vol, ix. p. 239.] » scabrum.
» tumidulum. » contortum.
»» | oxycephalum. » nigro-flavum*.
» fulyum. [, anguille, Zool. Dan. t. 91?
» clavigerum. Drum.]
» cylindraceum. Amphistoma longicolle.
» gibbosum? if macrocephalum,
»» appendiculatum. a isostomum.
»» rufoviride. 5s gracile.
» globulus. ne cornu.
» reflexum? Creplin. hs spherula.
» excisum. Monostoma attenuatum.
» trigonocephalum. 5 verrucosumf.
In this Order are ninety-nine species of Distoma and three of Amphistoma
undetermined by Dr. Bellingham.
Order ACANTHOCEPHALA.
Echinorhynchus angustatus [Dr. D.]. | Echynorhynchus tereticollis.
>
>
»
ced
a”
a transversus.
- acus.
Tiss » Drum. M.N.H.new
series, ii. 515. E. candidus and
E. lineolatus, Mull. Zool. Dan. eS
same as E. acus, Drum. id.]
he filicollis.
ee i Drum. M. N. H. [
new series, iii. 66. E. sphzro-
cephalus same as E. filicollis?
Drum. id. p. 67.)
nodulosus.
strumosus.
striatus ?
versicolor.
o Drum. M. N.
H. new series, iii. 65.]
hystrix.
» Drum. M.N. H.
new series, ill. 63.]
In this Order are fiye species of Echinorhynchus undetermined by Dr.
Bellingham.
Order NEMATOIDEA.
Ascaris lumbricoides. Ascaris depressa.
[ss » Temp.M.N.H. ix. 239.] » ensicaudata.
»» megalocephala, Cloquet. : »» nigrovenosa.
»» vesicularis. »» sacus.
>» inflexa. » angulata.
» constricta. »» vermicularis.
»» rotundata. iee » Temp.M.N. H. ix. 239.]
» osculata. », obvelata.
»» acuminata. »» maculosa.
» Marginata. » dentata.
» triquetra. », brevicaudata.
» Mmystax. » Spiculigera [Dr. D.].
* “Two more species of Distoma may be here mentioned; D. flecuosum from
the small intestines of a Mole, Zalpa Europea, and another (species undetermined)
from the cesophagus of the common Snake, Natrix torguata—both Mole and Snake
were brought from England.”—Dr. Bellingham.
+ “ Monostoma octonatum, found in the small intestines of a Mole (Talpa Europea)
from England, may here be noticed.” —Dr. Bellingham.
278
REPORT—1843.
Order NEMATOIDEA.
Ascaris variegata.
» obtusocaudata.
» labiata.
», capsularia [Dr. D.].
», heteroiira, Creplin.
» cuneiformis.
» Clavata [Dr. D.]:
» Ccollaris.
» tenuissima.
»» Succisa.
» alata, Bellingham, Dublin Medi-
cal Press, vol. i. (head figured.)
[. simplex, Rud., Drum. MS.]
[ ” rigida, ” ” ”» ]
“Es crenata, , Meg Shar |
Strongylus tubifex.
” contortus.
. retorteformis [Dr. D.].
3 trigonocephalus.
- tetragonocephalus.
Spiroptera cystidicola [Dr. D.].
a leptoptera.
Cucullanus elegans.
- faveolatus.
Faye platesse, Reinh., Drum. M.
' N. H. new series, ii. 519.]
[ss marinus, Rud., Drum. MS.]
Oxyurus curvula.
¥ » Temp.M.N. H. ix. 238.)
» ambigua.
[., gadi, Temp. ibid. fig. 31.]
Trichocephalus dispar,
[ss ”» Temp, M. N.H. ib.]
oa crenatus.
TF nodosus.
Trichosoma obtusum ?
rs inflexum ?
a longicolle.
Ms plica.
Filaria attenuata.
oe suis. [,, capsularia, Rud., Drum. M.N.H.
a5 trachealis ; Syngamus trach., new series, iii. 230.]
Siebold. [Trichina spiralis, Owen, Allman, Mi-
Spiroptera strumosa. croscopic Journal, vol. ii. p. 94.]
55 anthuris.
In this Order are nine species of Ascaris, two of Strongylus, six of Spirop-
tera, nine of Trichosoma, and three of Filaria undetermined by Dr. Belling-
ham.
The Irish species given in the preceding catalogue so far outnumber the
British species known, that the usual comparison is uncalled for. Dr. Belling-
ham remarks, “ The little attention which these animals have attracted in these
countries will be apparent from the fact, that in the only works which con-
tain lists of the British species of Etozoa, viz. Pennant’s British Zoology,
and Turton’s British Fauna, but twenty-eight are described as indigenous,
and four of these are noticed twice under different names, leaving but twenty-
four distinct species; while in the limited opportunity which I have had, I
have discovered and preserved upwards of 220 species, and several of these
occurred in six, others in ten, and one species in as many as fifteen different
animals.” ‘The number of Irish species determined by Dr. Bellingham is
143*; of species undetermined, but brought under their respective generat,
eighty :--from the many works consulted, but in vain, for these latter, there is
little doubt that the greater portion must be undescribed. Dr. Drummond
too informs me that he has obtained many E/ntozoa which he believes to be
new. ‘The species recorded by Dr. Bellingham were procured in Dublin ;
those by Templeton and Dr. Drummond in Belfast.
* Three species as indicated in a foot note are from British animals.
+ Dr. Bellingham has some £ntozoa which he cannot refer to any genus, and
knows of several species having been obtained in Dublin, which are not included in
his catalogue.
{ Botriocephalus solidus is an exception, having been found by Dr. G. J. Allman in
a Gasterosteus aculeatus taken in the co. of €ork—in specimens of this fish captured
in the neighbourhood of Dublin Dr. Bellingham could never find this Entozoon.
Sta
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND.
ECHINODERMATA.
279
The Irish species of Echinodermata known to Templeton were published
in the ninth volume of Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History, and subse-
quent additions were contributed by myself to the Annals of Nat. Hist.
vol. v. (p. 99 and 245) and vol. xiii.
Distribution,
ECHINODERMATA. Zlz|z
Order Pinnicrapa.—Crinoidee. Fed Lanka
Comatula rosacea, Link. (Sp.) ...cscsecssevesesees ita <tebhtae sc acs S maas cate pei ep % | *
Order Spinigrapa.— Ophiuride.
Ophiura texturata, Lam. ...........068 Aeeee sede tsteMRrdstic cease svaccaveeate cess ae alesse
a5 albida, Forbes. vescicsvesesacecorvayes fasteces vepathediaas baiiviancss sone easheel de | ae
Ophiocoma neglecta, Johnst. GP) SEdRbeuKS Harw$ts 268s cooacaak is ERC MN ST ad aaa Palen ee
BBILI, P OMG so5 hes chp teas ss ase ca aa Wars daanvee ees vovc faahees Waki ca Peale
he filiformis, Mull... BE ss Pipe i 4 fe ON 2 gu pe SE i aa cee lsee| he .
* brachiata, Mont. (sp.) ....... ditescasecas HBB CREEH sciscr Peer Ree *
3 praonulata; Danke) (Spi). Wika aves daa itis cadetikeebeiiesebddacs dans soe] x | *
35 BEMIS) LARk (SPs) tiisvscccsadcssacscaceeecacsd PAY dui de Sree L} Paes
i Fosula; Dink (apa iris. i aliabi. do ecaspeve MET tart cola] el ®
is Minuta, Forbes sscscccsecccsseeseces ais dane cdugeh ede chaaet sbawavaebadel yf lraoleds
Order CirRHIGRADA.— Asteriade.
Mmmster LlaGiglisy Lifts) (SD) labirhsosassscdsndecseataicsssstaraebasealsiseccients. my
» Tubens, Lin. (sp.) ee Bop acde spaniies ivccets Seen Oct Leer a
Uraster violacea, Mull. (sp.) ......4 BR a she unease ar BENGE Wo AVENE S ecekaantes rf
PMN Aes eelhe (SD Nstaas stnrsiew cas vs alse ee tis na sacersiven cevevsustts aes Ne
Cribella bleh: Yeu ubek 1 Ud) Ybor uBadbockec fedoustenuaoe aacar oner rk ceed EAR y
» rosea, Mull. (sp.) ....c.sscsecee Sercdeagape aos von: At er ee seeaies vidlens
Solaster endeca, Lin. (sp.) sssssesesceees LL RM EL ERCAPEE EE ere CLL ea ‘val g
k papposa, Lin. (sp.) ...... PAE Ao COLL, LER Te LLU CoC TEE woalg
Palmipes membranaceus, Retz. ...ssssoes bashed aes zi weartivessdesine dheweabe x
Asterina gibbosa, Peni. ..scsssssessseeesrcenens wad Fea WU Usa yay oi VendW ed Wa swsnamdy sl —
Goniaster Templetoni, Thomp. ......sseeeeee POPE EY: COPE O oo ae PEPE REE *
Asterias aurantiaca, Lin. .ccccscseceesevees RS eR dace bs tcnoeees oes Seat lity
RUE EATING, PUFUCS. .- La spasehe agence es asssedés sce tie thecssascecaateaatacclecs
Order Crrrui-SpinicRaDA.—Echinide.
Echinus sphera, Mull. ...... AMGEESceeeaee par roaietWcrcanestecttes ts nope rtdalch: cel &
» Miliaris, Leske; var. E. pustulatus, lg asss elie. vas LA SO ie dea a
a Flemingii, Bali PTT (ich Ge COT ec Ee West ah WER A
Ree lneicas etnds) (Ls) as ck saved fleas OR elie. aie, case rer rch itt Pelee "
Echinocyamus pusillus, Mull. (sp.) ssssccsvessee yiuees haath sakes beadacd ee baedig'] a faas
BMPS PULpPUrCUS, Mill. i vcccssoseeash-cecacsesstcsesossncssnsecocovacessesath d|'k
Amphidotus cordatus, Penn. (Sp.) .-sesseeveeseee Bap edemetioue dace te clea adae deed ele
a» TOSCUS, FOrbes esesssecccseces Aenea odhss WA cana UVES A caaksaciy sahaear Pa lee ee
Order Cirrui-VERMIGRADA.—Aolothuriade.
Psolus phantapus, Lin. (sp.) ....... adic Maes cagesss apd Sadieys ateadiaeonse ihe
Cucumaria pentactes, Mull. (DE) jacenuvetaniies ccd csi dadnespia ts Peiacigee cantare 7
i communis, Forbes & Goodsit’.......ccceceseeseccscesessccncecncncees oe tealeee
9 GusiformissHorbes) &;: GOOdsIT \.sssicass gee aeshccvardecdeareeesses ness a
Bf Drummondii, Thomp. (I.) ....... PREC er Ee ai icc Inn rIcH Cee eer ry ihe
” EXynidimani,’ Phonip:! (1s) ess icdsecsveovesscsegssorectogga Rocieee Aggy: ga
Ocnus brunneus, Forbes ......... RE eE one) Ec CCAR UES kolo til ben Reet %
» lacteus, Forbes & Goodsir.......... Huavocershicda stat adetasdasemnc sede erty ae or
* | *
wasleas
eeeleae
Cesleee
* * * * *
*
ww
280 REPORT—1843.
Distribution,
Slale\s
6 a | oO 3S
Order Crrrui-VERMIGRADA.—Holothuriade. a BF | B
Thyone papillosa, Mull. (Sp.)....ssseeeserseceeees eepeceneceese Sc. ee covesweel x lene]
» Portlockii, Forbes (I.) .....0. Rede ais JWeedecsncocsur con cto woxeas ree
Chirodota digitata, Mont. (sp.)?......ccccscaccsccccesscvcecsscocccssssovcccevceses| ip
Order VermicRADA.—Sipunculide.
Syrinx papillosus, Thomp. (sp.) ese...+-- Pobsssnatidte ececdsesevessccseostscescoenes melees| ap
Sipunculus Bernhardus, Forbes ...-..sssesecsecseeeees bestauecmene ewes sponesEense il well op
ae Pallasii, Thomp. MSS. (1.) ...s.seceseeees Rtesesenectaecnsecats acest
Priapulus caudatus, Lam. ......scccccecsssssssceceere ouseers Heioso ne re *
Thalassema Neptuni, Gerin. (sp.)....-. epaaas saateecuceeaet RN ee *
In the arrangement and nomenclature of the preceding catalogue, the
excellent work of Professor E. Forbes on the British Echinodermata is im-
plicitly followed. The fullness with which the subject is treated in that
work—to which al] the information on the Irish species was contributed*,—
renders a few words only desirable here on the distribution of the species
as yet unknown to our Fauna.
Of the twenty-nine + species of British ‘“ Starfishes ”"— Crinoidee, Ophiu-
vide and Asteriade—all but five are recorded as Irish. These are Oph.
punctata and Oph. Goodsiri, both of which were first described in Forbes’s
Brit. Echin.; the former has been taken only at Anstruther in Fifeshire ; the
latter there and at Shetland. Astrophyton scutatum and Goniaster equestris
are both very rare, but have occurred at a few localities from north to south
of Great Britain. Of Goniaster Abbensis (Forbes, Annals Nat. Hist. vol. xi.
April 1843,) but a single individual has yet been met with, and as its name
indicates, at St. Abb’s Head.
Of the eleven species of British Hchinide, four are unknown to Ireland,
but, one species— E. lividus—found on the western and southern coasts of
the latter island, and unknown as British, makes our number eight. Of the
desiderata, two—Cidaris papillata and Echinarachnius placenta—are ex-
tremely rare, and have been taken only in Shetland ; Hehinus neglectus there
and in Orkney. Brissus lyrifer (first described in Forbes’s Hist. Brit. Echin.)
has been obtained only in the estuary of the Clyde.
Of the twelve British species of Holothuriade, eight are known as Irish, and
three— Cue. Drummondii, Cue. Hyndmaniand Thyone Portlockii—discovered
on the coast of the latter country and unknown as British, make the Irish spe-
cies eleven in number. Of our desiderata, two species—Cucumaria hyalina
and Cue. fucicola—are known only to Shetland ; Psolinus brevis to the same
locality and the Kyles of Bute; Cucumaria frondosa to the same and the
coast of Fife.
Of the eight species of British Sipunculide four are known as Irish, in ad-
dition to which is the Sipun. Pallasii, that cannot be announced with cer-
tainty as British. Our desiderata are so rare that they have each been ob-
tained in a single locality only on the British coast, namely, Syrina nudus
(with certainty) and Syr. Harveii at Teignmouth in Devonshire ; Sipunculus
Johnstoni at Berwick-upon-Tweed ; Echiurus vulgaris at St. Andrews.
* Four species have since been added.
+ The original descriptions of two species—Oph. Ballit and Goniaster Templetoni—
were drawn up from Irish specimens, and the first Cribella rosea noticed in the British
seas was obtained off the south of Ireland.
rl Oe
>»
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 281
ACALEPHA.
A catalogue of the Acalepha of Ireland known to Templeton was published
in the ninth volume of Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History ; subsequently
papers on the subject have been published by Mr. Patterson* and Mr. Hynd-
manf, and some additional species to our Fauna recorded by myself in the
Zoological Proceedings for 1835, (p.’78){ and Annals of Natural History,
vol. v. p. 248. Mr. R. Ball has, from observations made at Youghal and
Dublin, contributed to our knowledge in this department. Distribution.
=| $i).
ACALEPHA. hla
Velella mutica, Lam.?§ ...ccceceeseees Reeanas ieee A cacankap ssh seeneccaccecssces| ge loool gel ge
» emarginata, Thomp. MSS. (LI We ee bays: Sse ge napactapennipetccvss vanlsce SBA BPALe
Physalia pelagica, Eschscholtz (not Lam }...cccccceeveees abis Secauns sanidbenanited pal eels bal a
Mere CuGUINIS, FaUr. COERO) cvelocivccsaceccvactavesnss¥nclecepetecsoecCotessevese %
fulgens, Macartney ........ccccewsessensercsaves vende cdavavecseueiecrucase die vooly?
Cydippe pileus, Lim. o....cccssscsecesceneeane Beaeatie chan chive eameces = <daeacee eects &
» lagena, Forbes ......... Dandi esecbasteachtaseadistabadesaaee Enaiitsseegesiccs 'Z
pomiformis, Patterson........+- pan oinaendee Matinee anak cnet ae aasaetes o % |e lees] &
Aleincé SSTHUEHITy HOTUCRS. ceaccasebcce cae vesvescecovasevncsna ates nO a seed *
» Hibernica; Bolina Hib., Patterson (I. i SES eon ee saat webareas Heals tee sy
Melicertum campanulatum, Ehrenb. AS ooub aeraiallee slcnietes das aals dave dcneret iy
Hippocrene Britannica, Forbes .......sscsssevesseeees Sabena bedaueetec sats Ee
Sarsia tubulosa, Lesson; Oceania? tubul. Sar's.......ccscccceecesceueesees Be cetiine
Oceania papillata, Mull. (sp.); Medusa papil. Zool. Dan. (1.) ....s..0008 GC
Thaumantias hemispherica, Mull. (sp.) .....sseesseeeees Seerena tea dhe vee oe ae a
re pileata, Forbes .......eesseseee UAE Padge ca cens Badtivanesrhs shee csean S
Thompsoni, Forbes ([.) ....scsseceeeveceeeeeee seeesesecceceosseeseeleeslene! g | ye
Ephysa simplex, Penn. (sp.) || ..eccceecse senseeseees opened: Bast dap Bansmwaep «tir ¥
» hemispherica, Templeton { (1.) .....cscsssecccsccceeeecececncsccssssates a
Obelia vitrea, Penn. (sp.); Piliscelotus vitreus, Templeton ......... oundh eas &
POcyroe ?cruciata, Temp, (1.) ....csscsecesecseserceseresscscees 4S Cesc sg
Chryszora tuberculata, Penn. as We se cene See dept tee cei anette: ¥
Aurelia aurita, Lin. (sp.) .....cceceee “Hearn BasBaeRa ae posts Soeawn? sesian Pyle e ie
» bilobata, Fipbes MS. (1. ) De Senses sees dche rest isdvettetessatin aes dies -
Rhizostoma Cuvieri, Peron; Med. undulata, Penn. ......sccsseesecenee Sc ctue & feoolg?
man gaelsarn abel) PevOyts cons'nded. deackwaacseestccs dated ca sete: deuce. vadedsewel eee me | ae
» capillata, Lin. (sp.); “ C. inscripta, Temp. young”’ (Forbes) ....| 4 |...| 4
? Aquorea ?radiata, Temp. ........ Seheeiee at she sepa welddat's fe avitcweca's ao daeines *
? Callirhoe ? dubia, Temp. “of (Lait stead latent lcipitdvtanis se aicatin spn GionS pes Metastases i
“ Medusa scintillans,” Macartney {t...... eclidpeihaias sate seivaeicte thay s\iasay nauk a,
Diphya elongata, Hyndman, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. (L. 88 here bees dba an Biestloe
Apolemia ? Gettiana, Hyndman, (1.) |\|]......sscsccsceseesnesusencescovaececenses
* Edin. Phil. Journ., Jan. 1836. Trans. Roy. Irish hed. er. xix. a fe
+ Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. p- 164. and vol. xiii.
{ Physalia pelugica only is here noticed; two fine examples of this species have at
different times been obtained at Youghal by Miss Ball.
§ A species of Velel/a is not uncommonly found thrown ashore on the north and
west coasts, but being generally in an injured state, its species is uncertain. The
V. emarginata is in all respects different from, and twice the size of the ordinary
species, It was obtained on the coast of Cork some years ago by Dr. Geo. J. Allman.
|| “ Probably as Cuvier suggests, some species in a mutilated state.” Forbes,
{ ‘ Perhaps a young state of durelia.” Forbes.
** “ This and the preceding are badly observed species.’ " forbes.
tt “ Of doubtful position, but apparently a good species.” Forbes.
tt ‘‘ Probably the fry of some species.” Forbes. Lesson names it Thaumantias
lucida, p- 335.
§§ Among shell-sand collected at Bundoran on the western coast by Mrs. Hancock,
and sent to Mr. Hyndman, several Diphy@ (apparently D. elongata) were met with.
||| Lhis species will be described in the Annals of Natural History.
282 REPORT—1843,
Professor Edw. Forbes, who has bestowed more attention on the Acalepha
than any British author, and successfully studied the species in a living state,
has kindly contributed for my use on the present occasion a catalogue of the
native species, in which those observed by him when dredging in various
parts of the Irish coast are noted: some of these have already been published
in the Reports of the British Association for 1839 (p. 85, Transactions of
Sections), and Annals of Nat. Hist. vol. vii. p. 81. The recorded species of
British and of Irish Acalepha are about the same in number ; the latter ex-
clusively (as yet observed) are above indicated in the usual manner: those
known as British and not as Irish, according to Professor Forbes’s catalogue,
are the following :—
Cydippe Flemingii, Ford.
Rataria (Esch.) pocillum, Mont. (sp.)
Alcinoe rotunda, Forbes § Goodsir.
Dianza? Bairdii, Johnst. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. vi.
Thaumantias punctata, Forbes, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. vii.
” Sarnica, ” ” ”
“Cyanza” coccinea, Davis, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. p. 234. pl.2. (Gen. Oceania. )
“ Geryonia” octona, Flem. Brit. Anim. (Gen. Oceania.)
Aurelia granulata, Esch.
» purpurea, Penn.
Cassiopea lunulata, Penn.
“ Eulimena” quadrangularis, /’/em. Brit. Anim. (probably a Beroe.)
ZOOPHYTA.
The Zoophytes of Ireland are well known. In Ellis’s British ‘ Corallines’
some species from the coast of Ireland are described; in the ninth volume
of Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History a complete catalogue of the native
Zoophytes known to Templeton appeared; in the ‘Zoological Researches’ of
Mr. John Vaughan Thompson is a “memoir” (5th) partly upon the subject ;
in the Annals of Natural History, vol. v. p. 249, and vol. vii. p. 481, additional
species to the Irish Fauna are given by myself; in vols. vi. vii. and ix. of this
work Mr. Hassall has very fully entered into the subject; in the Proceedings
of the Royal Irish Academy for 1843*, and in a communication brought be-
fore the present meeting}, Dr. Geo. J. Allman has given the results of his
investigation of the freshwater species.
The collections of Dr. J. L. Drummond and Mr. Hyndman from the north
and north-east coast; of Mr. W. H. Harvey (communicated to me in 1834),
Miss Ball, and Mr. R. Ball from the Dublin coast; of the two last-named
from Youghal (co. Cork); of Mrs. Hancock from Ballysodare (co. Sligo), and
others of less extent have added much—in addition to those of the naturalists
who have written upon the subject—to our knowledge of the native species.
To my kind friend Dr. Johnston I am indebted for a manuscript catalogue
of the British Zoophytes as known to him at the present time: the nomencla-
ture and synonyma of the following list are taken from it, as are, also, the
data on which the concluding remarks are founded.
* The title of this paper is “ On the Muscular System of Paludicella articulata and
other Ascidian Zoophytes of fresh water.”
+ See present volume.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 283
Distribution.
ZOOPHYTA*. Slee
Order Hyproipa. 2 | Ae
*
Clava multicornis; Coryne squamata, Lam. ....1000
“ capitata; Echinochorum clavigerum, Hass. .....
“ minuticornis ; Hydra corynaria, Temp. ...,......
Coryne pusilla, Gert. ; C. glandulosa, Lam, sssscsseccsscccsccreseereseeneeee| ge fawn) ge
Eudendrium rameum; Tubularia ramea, Pall. ..cccccsccssscssscvsseveevsccessless
hg ramosum ; Tub. ramosa, Lin. oiicssccssccsecsssecccceeeesesnene| ge
MILLIE cl yUp> hokdprepnnedancraioasrravpnecoaedepasseoccneccssstaathe « crtgel ib
as DAVOS va ca siacondninoapsertopsaparcparsessprscessh etl abathhs > ¢na enol de
3 muscoides, Lin. ..... eae tag aa bees aie
Thoa halecina, Lamm. .....0.000
gb DEAN, SONNET. | ncooaciesoce
»» Muricata, Johnst. .....c000.
Sertularia polyzonias, Lin. .......
MEMRAM AE ses evavnhbtapesraporascsfaasearndnenccsterdeveveesissanees|e
Seis LOSACCAs EAM. cast ecasnen saa cokutantteunebedia cl Wictstcccascccesecomaes|
Fs PUMA PAW scvececescscnsrcscsecscsesnarcecacaecressscnacsderenacdathoal &
ay pinaster, Ellis; S. margareta, Hass. (W. T.) ..cscccssecsncceesenel ap
“i MASS TISCN LUT te aniiasacsaeaasvdhsdovncsvosneneseed
yf PESICUIRELS “PMS Mcgee vale ds aces ainacewane sav s@dacs vesesegerese
4 PRINCI ets PLUER I Sars az cana oan Binee’s cava sese'ecicase sean th ovebin
<3 operculata, Lin. ...s.sseee ES ctcenthcs APocs Anashase hand
is argentea, Hillis ..... Siannjagh thas vathattensscaaens
y MBN CHIR FiGMe ahdcensi sn caancdacescnibsntecscacscanschoaapeeessonogesol
RM a PC Lis ta sasiutcaccnssetesevcosbosnesits (fe¥iessasgpaacaspeahaval ge
Ty UPMLCULAGE, ALAM: itincconsres0sisriancsheseaverscansccunsscstehacstaResapnal
Antennularia antennina, Flem. ; A. ramosa ..........scssseeseeeeceuseeseeeeee] gg
bs arborescens, Hass. (probably not distinct from last.) ......|...
Plumularia falcata, Lam. ...
Bf cristata, Lam. .....
+ pennatula, Lam. .. ideal sh dnacne cata Lis aebtio nt aleaels
x PUD AACE G M8. co nadadtesaebale avynaahacccd > armpandaatooedasspiancehie|
A setacea, Lam.; Sertularia Templetoni, Flem. (W.T.) .........) »
de BO nL AUIU as ME MMEBR AME heres ca teed sce sive cainctsd otes sate kadebatiess teegtr loc.
45 PAYA O DIVINE NUMER \cacndaatesaaces scores rédecsces: saceasseces ostyas|aas
' 3 PEULEROBUS) HLCP A tas Cuditedivdeas cucrsonensacdcccsctictcr ticcceh ect alee
Laomedea dichotoma, Lamz. ..
Ba geniculata, Lame. .. MEE ecawsccaeeseates
9 Helatinosa, Lama. ..a..ssayatcsncnchiseaacsesdt
Campanularia volubilis, Lam. ...esssseesssssserseeesees
x antepra, Macgtitvenaavca:tivcceccsccosts
i SVT Ay LOM «. sdsisieewaacn ssi sca anh cagess vepeno sh adsasecsarenscss}
43 MERCIA ely LMI ehdavenkss nase nnnass «énesee PasESs cotensascrgel
ot GUMOSG, PPCM a atten SUDARN niacin had edanterdecesss aden nrescnsnets| ag
ie alles pail x ohare ds ale oS Bap mabe Fn
Meevmearis, Pall. ......cc0 SaiR ec taththescnes¢
PUMICE ATs i.e sescectons outWtdst sae dsans dats ovaaivedod sige Audsaes cccaccaanleae
» _ verrucosa, Temp. (Allman makes this identical with H. fusca.) ...| ,
Cordylophora lacustris, Allman. (See present volume.) (1.) sssseseecssnealoes
theaveevecsees| & Ieee
?
OH ae nereeeweesseeeenly Fl
St eeeeeeeeeereieneee! y
*
ooo]
see reeeteeesene!
neon eaeeseteesesesece Pea eeeeetewenens!
HN Oe eeeneeeeeraneceeesreneeeseeeeeeaenaen)
* *¥ * * * *
Sere eee eereserseseeurocessseeesaunane|! &
Sas eeeeeeseeesrecccsessessaooesessevers! x
enol &
eeeereeel
teed eeoel y
seeeveeel ye
teeewenel &
seenenenes!
* * * * * *¥ KE KK *
*
*
*
*
Pee e ese eeeccscesee
Shee eee nese eeesewensnnel
Pere reece eecesenes
* * * ¥* *
the eeveseees! %
* * * *
Fe ee ee eee eeeenneeeesseseressesdesseestesen! 4
Paaeteeeeceseene! y
te eeeeeeeenesel x
* ee ee KOK KK
:
*
* * * * Ke *
sn eewewneeecee| y
Sete een eeeeseerercesene! &
*
* * * *
Sabet eeeeeeesensl y
* * * & * *
*
Order ASTEROIDA.
Virgularia MARAIS; Lame sy yssiversoetnvsvesececscvecncensessasecddaahedsaseneseesl @
Gorgonia anceps, Pall. ...css-scessssersereseeeeeves ¢sccunhude oun dévuns|actly 2]
MMR LL, LAGS, 550 nhs rns 60h <intt rendsvadieo ds keansat odveabialhsniasll tig +
* Before entering on the Zoophytes it may be mentioned that Templeton noticed
ten species of Vorticella in the ninth volume of Loudon’s Mag, Nat, Hist. (p. 420),
of which three are described and figured as new.
284 REPORT—1843.
Distribution,
Order HELIANTHOIDA.
Zoanthus Couchti, JoWnst. sirsvssccvccersccrcccscccsvcsvcsececsevbaressesoncseseses[onclous|eoc} a
Caryophyllia Smithii, Stokes ...ss.cscssssesesseseceeseveeseeceseeseeeseneseeeenalenel ae | ae | ok
Anthea cereus, Johnst. ..scssssessceceeneees Joie bis duuleutiey lisa telawebleb’s dean's CumneeInERS| fae
Adamsia maculata, Forb.; ‘Actinia mac., ‘Adams Nauhe ad oP dete CRNNR cate
Actinia mesembryanthemum, Ellis ........s10.00 side ous sel abyeaamees wily
» Margaritifera, Temp. Loud. M. N. H. volsi ix. Pes 304. f. 50. dL). gl
» viduata, Maath sr \ aasieavevess'ee WeeOa bites one heer ures ywebben iuiecdduee ened
» coccinea, Mull. Bh encichs therhccaeti uote ued co eana te ee
oe) MDCLLISS PbS ~ivuicwsbr'cesee ete bouesioeturcoseeureseoevesne Vane nceeeateee
gy BEMMACEA, HULis ......ccscceeceversvcsssevvseveevescesecsvevssevessssscesesel | x
Cianthus, EUlis ...ccsccccesceceveveveseeeeeees Voevseaueesensinnacuseeswabweuligatay
Lucernaria fascicularis, Flom: cetennbeueveshoeebbere vetaeGuas sean ghOeenecen yee
- auricula, Fabr. ... SU SENGSUS Vesiee cohwibeiieeivnesias af eteesinneis Beane es
Order AscIDIOIDA.
Serialaria lendigera, Lam. ....seccoscssscorccasceseenseecevevcsncancessadecencesens
Vesicularia spinosa, Thomp. (J. V7.) csccsccsesecencecencascssevvesecsssscosesees
WielkerniCuisCUtty HLCME: vtecisorscstrosteerbersvenscavcseectes tts dicen aaet seen sae
WE MAUIV EILENES oe be ach vcetacetabesssasasacese ce'senasn tetas ta sinsied ueluuieiieeete
>» pustulosa, Johnst. . BARRA OTSDRCECORCL DUD CEDCCOROCACISED 0s IEE
Bowerbankia imbricata, Joknat. + ; B. Hens, Farre; primary state = Ser-
tularia imbricata, Adams ; Valk. glomerata, Colds. : adult state... om
Lagenella repens, Farre .........0++ semdebecccoeacceetsmeeseuahasessennederanpreunsl
Pedicellina echinata, Sars. need RicehinaatennReameaneacse nace patente cnker se dacaaes
WTISCA COCMUtA; SONS. —ciaveacccocceuscusaucsnecasesaccnscoesosmahsbenvinb ¢oslaevunc
y» eburnea, Lame. ..ccocssecerenne Bisse tavanacdscecear cate tetas eon eemae
» luxata, Flem.; C. denticulata, Edw. Wadateshiviee cgecseae SAA ceieawess
» aculeata, Hass. MRE aS RaSRA Hedcodtiser Gadnotan co secmomoscec seis gto ia!"
Tubulipora patina, Lam. ; Discopora verrucaria, PMCs easaetaasopendeeeae
hispida, Johnst. ; Discopora hisp., Flem. ...s.csececeeeeeeeeenes
flabellaris, Johnst. ; Tubipora flab., Fabr.; T. lobulata, Hass.
PP serpens ; Tubipora serpens, Lin.; T. transversa, Lam. ......] x | »
Ss QUELAS FORUSTs Weceasctacaeacsiansanenninet tne sn cee eee Soageoegeuueeee
Alecto ?
Encratea chelata, Liamite veisteocscsunes sts canoes ote sacsnblecfocetsecesaadussidpsea¥ebn
Notamia loriculata, Flem. ....cccsccsccessevenseesens eblee vadidapse Chale dA ceatenemaee
Hippothoa catenularia, lem. .sesssssesessseeeeseresessseeeenscseneesseressenslens
x divaricata, Lamex.; H. lanceolata, Gray. ates dececepeecasensennteben
Anguinaria spatulata, Lam. ccscsccssccsseseventcnecenecenseneeeeeneeeteeeeeneceeles -
Cellepora pumicosa, Lin. cccssscsssscsseccescsneessececsneseneceeseeeeceseeceneees
< ramulosa, Mehl TESA Seater votre coetetes cee chee nctecsctcreelnarieanenatien
a CETWIGONIIS, HHILCM Vice octccneseatet closes ke shicetevaceiderens
Lepralia hyalina, Johnst.; 6 L. cylindrica, Base. sud ee e
5 Hassalli, Johnst. MSS. ; Cellep. bimucronata, Hass. sbatamneant alees
»» wunicornis, Johnst.; L. coccinea, Johnst. ..rcsecsecsecsereseneeneens
pediostoma, Hass. ; ; Flust. Hibernica, Hass. .....:..scseceeneeeeeees
»» verrucosa, Johnst.; L. ae ys IMUSSS cacecteneesnasks scot
» biforis, Johnst. ...... seen stro Ceacataasancivercecdepeennnsecsetageeemacacene
oo granifera, Johnst. MSS. ...sscsecceccescecccesensenseneeteeeereseneeetaly
*
*.*¥ eee Ke KH HK HH KH KH K
* *
Pee O OEE POOH THEE EEO EO SEES SHEE OOOH EHTS HEE E HEH HEH ESEESH SEES ED aay
* * * *
*
-*¥ * KK KKK
*
*
* * * * * *E *
»?
*
EEE:
a variolosa, TORNSE. ios wav avevcecvacuonscuessesousedesesoeeccueuriccsscas cnc] grleaneet ine
yo AMMETSA, JONNSE. ...csscscseeseeccreccecesccssccccsscesccreseecerecoeceneel ae | ae | ae |g
yo Punctata, Hass, ..ceccscsecscrecsscseenensecesnssnsesescveenesecensereeel ene og
3) Mitida, Johnst. ssissccsssscess baacdcccboecesbeeakasaustvexedewedctccceveene! atime
» Ciliata, Johnst.; B. utriculata, Flem. ; ‘pL. insignis, Hass. ...... al eee
» Spinifera, Tohnét.; Ly, Cilia tals) EAGSSb\- cooulootban wattle: vs iwekecedaqeteoelveel ae
” coccinea ; Cell, coccinea, Mull, See eemeeeReeeeeasenereerereserececnoete
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 285
Distribution,
: 2 sha
S/8 18/8
Order Ascip1o1pa. ballad alc
Lepralia semilunaris, Hass. ........ esaldidc ts tldslnacted seems ables shisha aidsmemamuce|- aelr
»» linearis, Hass. (1.) ...cceccecesceons BSeeAREE eR eles TRE teallae ee
y» auriculata, Hass. ...cccsccccsceeees hs ahesae riustede qucsives saweeses L 2 atqate ee lag
Baim wentricosaElags siweeses fei c sence ak hens kokes cosh eat otl we ei a Merl
» tenuis, Hass. (I.) .......0.. ea snieheashastteaesiecnded Benabian eae sqnam aalenel ae
Ree SSMS, -FTOSS. (Lis) ve ceanccroactsokensccace RedaniModathns vancteabce ves weleste m
OVALISS UAOSES en tmca ce craarrecwaceremcnece eae saenaite foaascomestens assis Eiellie
Bibles tianipors pilosa ; Flustra jen 2. CouccbcamngerboeReecadee sorHbceceercecione | ae las | ae
5 membranacea ; Fl. memb., Mull. ; Fi. tuberculata, Tohnst.| | x | % | x
Flustra foliacea, Lin. ......... ere ee ee aaeehereneeks EES a oeoetsleahig
»» Chartacea, Gel. ...csccccccsecasers BAB ice EPA ance eaee- sents Shc Heal eel scl be
Pape tmencata Piha eieicsceed ia serccethe iacigeees Rea h aEe et. ASS ese Se *
_», carbasea, Hillis & Solan... ReMi eee BeGnetsom me aweeoe sb aulainee cesiananetst ee
PU AVICUANIEM SOIEHINIs Wau sobtsesclaptecditwabaaea stares wm gL ot oe pel Seale
Tineata, Lin. cccccesccussscccccees Seana tetas sanEBe lagen eiates nse sside esis x | x |x
Celfularia Ciliaitay Pal. ckeisancscereccene speieeas Aad SHR RNRPe iH merae aie Beales ae olin
Ay scruposa, Pall. .....sses0+ Poueecnedasans diedoneaissihis tae Mein sete bE REE ge lac
44 reptans, Pall. ....0.. Beatin Fonsnbaas ceromy BEA AHggterigd ddaenolsacoen % be | ele
54 avicularia, Ellis 8 Solan. sscscccscssscssccecsccccsscves Cay ER BP libe
Acamarchis neritina (sp.), Lin, ..rccecssccsscecessececsececccesseenscuveneceecs ¥
by plumosa; Cellul. plum., Pail. ; Sert. fastigiata, ail nade cationic We
Farcimia salicornia; Cellul. sal., Pall. .....csccceveseseues SMG RE cutee waa sees cae
‘ sinuosa, Hass, . Apeabcasaeckes g dhe arnt amerbacndatbads ee Sulede alan awieins ol eho
Alcyonidium gelatinosum; Alcyonium eel., Pall. Be satoaian a cunnais sanobicnenlae's xe |e |
as hirsutum, Flem....... sedis ideioen a sdidd 6 staibacabaaaeqize shasesnc aan ossicles ell elk de
95 CCHIMATUTI NE LEM. Wi aabaadl ccasevadadeacesevanwaegessaea donee oes Famnwsle ila tae toe
EMPARASHTCUMMSHHMCHTs) caveraccceessuaheccersccversscsannceeptnacerecs 4 Pe
ee, hispium, Fabr. (sp.) Cycl. papillosum, Hass.; Flustra? ate
_ nosa, Johnst. ; Flustra spongiosa, Temp. Pea OTN A Shc thle ees adh cod bis
Sarcochitum polyoum, Hass. sscsccsscscseseseccscevcsscecsccscassecseescsveecescne! | 3
Cristatella mucedo, Cuv....... widaiWinveseWeee tebe at wee Madanidb cbeedameae nae aseualedal geile] ian
Been Ovella SLA NOTUTT, LAI. wnavcrovensytenssivesivcrwauasacsscesandevanasdeascegon| sen], J
Plumatella repens, Sa eiye se eA ta Mea dota ant etidezin dea Gees E Psteais Se athe meaesabs tilt pall ate ME
a emarginata, Allman () dala chess elie Maaateddweinas 5 na BUREN eee gales
PS fruticosa, Allman (I.) ...... Saaeetutth Bt ia ec llr canaceachaelstalaceen
Fredericella gelatinosa; Plumat. gel., Flem., Johnst. ...ccoccscccsceverecenss AL A celit!.
$ sultana; Tubularia sult., Blumen. “ Identical with F. ge-
latinosa,” ALUN Gila abe iba Wl kovevacaskcgeeds aati
ae dilatata, Allman (1.) (Seepresentvo. or Annals, vol xiii. ip. 331 o)faee] loool
Paludicella articulata, Gervais (1.) .ss.ssccsvececcccrscesecescnsccscosscnsccccsecer| ge | ok
Of the Zoophyta Hydroida there are fifty-two British species, five of which
are not recorded as Irish: of these, three are each from a single locality—
Corymorpha nutans, from Shetland; Sertularia Evansii, Yarmouth, and
known only to Ellis; Zaomedea oblique, south of England? ‘The others are
Sertularia pinnata, ‘of which nothing positive can be said, owing to the con-
fusion in which the species is involved; Sertularia nigra, noticed on the east
coast of Great Britain and in Cornwall. Cordylophora lacustris, a freshwater
species discovered in the vicinity of Dublin by Dr. Geo. J. Allman, and for
the reception of which he has constituted a new genus, has not been met with
in Great Britain.
Ireland is very deficient in the Zoop. Asteroida, three only of the eight
* The preceding seven Lepralie have not been examined by Dr. Johnston.
_ t+ Flustra distans, Hass, not a veritable species.
a
286 REPORT—1843.
British species having been found upon our coast: two of these eight— Gor-
gonia placomus, noted as from Cornwall (Ellis), and Isis hippuris, from the
east of Scotland and Orkney—are considered by some authors as doubtful
British species. The others are Pennatula phosphorea, for which the only
localities particularized in Johnston’s British Zoophytes are on the eastern
coast of Seotland* ; Gorgonia verrucosa from Cornwall, Devon, “ Seotland;”
Gorgonia lepadifera from Shetland and Aberdeenshire.
There are twenty British species of Zoophyta Helianthoida, including Cap-
nea sanguinea, discovered in the Irish Sea near the Isle of Man by Professor
Edw. Forbes. Nine of these have not been noticed on the Irish coast, and
on the British, one only of the number has been found in more than a single
locality, viz. Lucernaria campanulata, obtained at Torbay and Berwick. The
others are the Capnea already mentioned; Turbinolia borealis and Actinia
intestinalis from Zetland; Anthea Tuedia and Aetinia sazxatilis from Ber-
wick ; Act. biserialis from Guernsey ; I/wanthus Seotieus from Loch Ryan.
The Actinia margaritifera and Act. coccinea found on the coast of Ireland,
are unknown to the British catalogue.
The British species of Zoop. Ascidioida may be reckoned ninety-three in
number, after several species described as distinct have been made synony-
mous with others previously known; of these, twenty-eight have not yet
been recorded as Irish:—several are yet unpublished as British. On the
other hand, eight known as Irish have not a place in the catalogue of Great
Britain ; three are Lepralie described by Mr. Hassall; the Pedicellina echi-
nata of Sars; Plumatella emarginata, Plum. fruticosa and Fredericella dila-
tata of Allman; Paludicella articulata of Gervaist. Of the Irish desiderata
seventeen species are each from a single British locality—Beania mirabilis
and Flustra Murrayana from Scarborough; Yubulipora penicillata, T. de-
flexa, T. trahens and T. hyalina§ (described by Mr. Conch), from Cornwall,
which is the only locality for Retepora reticulata. Tubulipora truneata,
Cellepora levis, and Flustra setacea have been obtained at Zetland. Pal-
las’s habitat for Notamia bursa—“ mare Anglicum”—should probably be
more strictly a limited locality. Lepralia trespinosa is from Berwickshire ;
Cellularia Hookeri from Torquay; Eschara fascialis, Isle of Wight; Lepra-
lia reticulata, Aberdeen. The remaining species respecting which localities
have been published, are Cellepora Skenei, east coast of Great Britain, &c.,
from Northumberland to Zetland, and lately dredged off the Mull of Gal-
loway by Capt. Beechey, R.N.; Fetepora cellulosa, Shetland,Fulah and Scar-
borough; Eschara foliacea, Sussex and the south coast of England.
AMORPHOZOA.
A catalogue of the Irish Sponges known to Templeton was published in
the ninth volume of Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History, and a few
* A specimen once brought to me from Belfast market was stated to have been
found among haddock sent from Glasgow, and most probably captured on the west
coast of Scotland.
+ Included in this number are two of Delle Chiaje’s species from Sana island, on
the Scottish coast, noticed by myself in the Annals of Nat. Hist. (vol. x. p. 20), and
the seven last-named species of Mr. Hassall in the preceding catalogue, all of which
require to be further studied with the view to ascertain whether they be really new
or only synonymous with species previously described—indeed, the Berenicee, Celle-
_pore and Lepralie require a thorough revision,
t A highly interesting paper on the anatomy of the species, by Dr. Geo. J. Allman,
has been published in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy for 1843.
§ I have not seen the descriptions of these species of Z'ubulipora.
eS eels
1 SSA Re
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND.
287
additional species were noticed by myself in the fifth volume (p. 254) of the
Annals of Natural History. More recently, the native species obtained by Mr.
Hassall, myself and others, and those procured by Wm, McCalla, collector
to the Royal Dublin Society, were placed in Dr. Johnston’s hands for descrip-
_ tion in his work on the British Sponges which appeared in 1842. They are
fully treated of there, with the exception of one species, the Grantia lacunosa
(which I obtained in Strangford lough in July 1838) being accidentally
omitted. The names in the following list are those adopted in the work just
mentioned.
’ Distribution.
AMORPHOZOA. d}.lel4
5is\2)2
Class AmorPHozoA, Blainy,——Sponges. Ml Fla
Tethea lyncurium, Lam. ...... Meee weede aed bane aateh eeane Noo e cankeeeats nS Se | ote eh
Halichondria oculata, Pall. (sp.) ..... gas Wise Saaasvetes Sie a caudchag abscess A ee &
a cervicornis, Pall, (Sp.) ...cccsssereeeeveccecesecenes sedeaaewanninad eh acto bw
et Montagui, Flem. ........ qie Lameuetaadiancesp iva mubdtgh 2a aa ia unt bene ale
34 ventilabra, Lin, (Sp.) -ssecceeeeees Dee teehtet eel neatinassaa ee eee sn ataalah
AB SIMU ANA, OMMSE (1) cvangy ang hgnve sane desrasessnestaa get Aor sat ae Se
a cinerea, Grant (SP.) -crcececcecceescccescrececerceees grec cue nepweTl une Poles
or fucorum, Eisper (Sp.) ..scccsscsecsenceccececscrsnescsccssecsencees *
oe panicea, Pall. (Sp.) sseccccecesceccnsconccceeccerenscsececescetenes ea
as wgagropila, Scouler, Johnst. (1.) .-..scsssesseeseveteeeensrereseeel ene! Of!
a incrustans, Esper (SP.) ..secccsescocsecsenceenscsesecevecsecesecess Pe
es saburrata, Johnst. (perhaps not distinct from last, Johnst. \
Sponges, p. 197.) (L.) secceceeessecceceereeseeeres Veenuaewsapustiles Kies *
Ke areolata, Johnst. ..... eae ere Sos dicta ass! ae lie hee
oe serrata, Grant (SP.) cccccsereenreesecerercsceees Raeeabe aeke's vaipale saalonal x
aa Celata, Grant (SP.) -csccececeescenencerseceesecessencnerecscnsecenes wa CaS
ie sanguinea, Grant (SP.) sssereeeres oy. ih at este ie a ed ros liag tae
Aa hirsuta, Flem. ...ecesessose hh aS “tcHenGed ees Cee CELE oudoee a
55 suberea, Mont. (Sp.) ..ccecseeceseneseneeeneves debadieue Bie Wales aie gy
55 mammillaris, Mull. (Sp.) ...sceseseecseccceeeceenes Meee eine wean oe %
4 earnosa, Johust. (1.) ...ccseeees Feperee erie Arr NE Cree adabias |Soehicg
Spongilla fluviatilis, Pall. ...... ab ashahcarseseas iesne Rav ahie wigs cuasaaeenegeees salah
Spongia pulchella, Sow. ......escseeeeaees Ais ones sta URs gan dautnes ge olds penaeeelcn
go he Limbata, Mont. .2.cevccdisccceccecesscentsecseceseeses Rapa anchende at arecse elas
Grantia compressa, Fabr. (Sp.) -sseccseeceeecceererecceeeeneeeeeeeeees daca uae ae weil eilgults
yr lacunosa, Bean, Johmst...i.ccscccrecescsecsecsceccnensneteessceceseseeees a
>>» Ciliata, Fadr. (sp.) ......csnconenscesseee Pi lodgit gag. dhacaundonasys cudaael alt sell loa
», botryoides, Ellis and Solan. (sp.) «+++ Betas dk de aebncedeckaase gueacns fe | geist
» fistulosa, Jolnst. ([.)..cccesccceeeneees pf et ap Np: Aaa ee Aaa «ia. *
gs Nivea, Grant (SP.) ...cseccsceenereceeces Re aie Ah vine ba vnide seins Sana acs sé aleedl ae
»> Coriacea, Mont. (Sp.) .cccccccecerceeseereeserseeses ee hated dete ated Siesces sale
Dysidea fragilis, Mont. (sp.). ...«. BEN Saas Od eatewiassasdvdguescsesneecertaxs elo
yo? — papillosa, Johnst. .....seceeesesseeeenceeeaeens HORACE, Reaine rhe *
Class LirHopHyTa*.
Corallina officinalis, Lin. ....cccccsceseseceeenecsesesscnssccseasenses Re ieee, Pig
Jania rubens, Lamour., Lin. (Sp.) eeescsececsenereeseacceseeseeecesseneesceenenees SY eae Te
Halimeda opuntia, Lamour. Pall. (Sp.).ssseereesseeeevernersaetenseeneans Decamalne lise
Nullipora polymorpha, Lin. (Sp.) eoecssseeeereseeeeees Banas cena akan aeunes can Be elie ae
» fasciculata, Lam. (sp.) (1.) ssseeceeeeeeeeeeees ee emavaieaerecagae srsantecs|s *
» agariciformis, Pall. (sp.) (1) scessecsseeeeeseeeeseeseneenseeeneenwee)eeelene *
Of the fifty-one species of Sponge found in Great Britain, twenty-seven
* Now referred to the vegetable kingdom.
288 REPORT—1843.
have been met with in Ireland, and 5 species—Halichondria simulans, H. ega-
gropila, H. saburrata, H. carnosa, Grantia fistulosa ; all described as new—
being indigenous to the latter island only, make our number thirty-two. The
most common Halichondrie thrown ashore on the north-east coast of Ireland
are H. fucorum and H. panicea: on the Dublin coast the latter is in the
highest perfection. H. suberea is not uncommonly dredged from deep water.
Spongilla fluviatilis is found in several localities in the north, and both in
swiftly-flowing and still waters.
Grantia compressa and G. ciliata are common on Alge around the coast,
as G. botryoides is in the north.
Of the twenty-four British Sponges unknown as Irish, the following species
are recorded but from one district or one locality—Geodia Zetlandica and
Tethea cranium, Shetland Isles—Halichondria hispida, H. ramosa, H. plu-
mosa, H. fruticosa, H. aurea, H. conus, H. rigida, H. perlevis; Spongia
levigata and Pachymatisma Johnstonia from the south of England: of these
ten species, seven rest on the authority of Montagu alone. Halich. aculeata
and HA. virgultosa are from Scarborough (Mr. Bean) ; Halich. albescens and
Halisarca Dujardinii from Berwick and its vicinity (Dr. Johnston) ; Ha-
lich. sevosa from the Isle of Man (Mr. E. Forbes); Spongilla lacustris from
the adjoining counties of Angus (or Forfar) and Fife; the remainder are
Halich. palmata found in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, the east and
south of England; Halich. Columbe, Icolmkill and Brighton; Halich. in-
fundibulum, northern islands of Scotland and Cumbrae; Halich. coalita,
east and south Great Britain; Halich. ficus, Scarborough and Isle of Man;
Grantia pulverulenta, Devon and Zetland.
Of the eight British species (or forms considered as such) of Lithophyta,
four are known as Irish, and in the catalogue of the latter, two new species—
Nullipora fasciculata and N. agariciformis—are included, thus making the
number altogether six. Corallina officinalis, Jania rubens, and Nullipora
polymorpha, are abundant round the coast. Of the four British species un-
known as Irish, three—Corallina elongata, C. sguamata and Jania corniculata
—have been found only in the south of England; Nullipora calcarea there,
and also on the west coast of Scotland: this last is considered by Dr. Johu-
ston to be merely a state of NV. polymorpha.
Conclusion.
The progress made in the portions of the Invertebrata of Ireland embraced
in this Report has been indicated under the respective Classes. It is con-
siderable in all, and exhibits, from the circumstance of our Fauna being about
equally investigated with that of Great Britain, a fair comparison with the
larger island*. Much still remains to be done in every department with
reference to mere species, and to their distribution. The manner in which
the various marine species are found associated together; the relative depths
considered in connection with their mineralogical character; the many influ-
ences affecting the distribution of species, are subjects of inquiry, for the study
of which the coast of Ireland offers a rich harvestt. Accurate observations
on the habits and geueral economy of the species are always valuable. The
* More attention has been bestowed on the Mollusca Nudibranchia, Foraminifera
and Annelida of Great Britain than on those of Ireland, where on the other hand the
Mollusca Cephalopoda, Moll. Tunicata and Entozoa have (as to species) claimed more
attention.
+ The natural history of Ireland exclusively being alluded to, the all-important
questions of structure and physiology are not mentioned, as they can be studied in
every country which the species inhabits,
Bm
&
*
i
¥
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 289
following is a brief summary of the departments in which the greatest addi-
tions to our knowledge as to species, &c. may be anticipated :—Mottusca,
Orders Nudibranchiata and Tunicata generally ; Cephalopoda—as evinced by
Mr. R. Ball’s discoveries in one locality ; Pectinibranchiata—minute species
of the families Zurbinide and Buccinide ; Lamellibranchiata—in the species
not to be met with on the beach, but only to be obtained by dredging.
Crustacea generally, excepting the order Decapoda. Cr1rruireDA, with
respect to the various forms assumed by each species. ANNELIDA generally,
land, freshwater and marine: the testaceous species of the tribe Serpulina,
though as to their mere number the best known, much require rigid analysis.
ForAMINIFERA generally. EcHINODERMATA, the families Holothuriade
and Sipunculide. AcALEPHA generally. Zoopuyra; in Hydroida, the soft
species or those which do not form horny cases, as the genera Clava, Hydra,
&c.; the Helianthoida generally ; in Ascidioida, the genera Tubulipora and
Lepralia, in reference to the extent of form assumed by the respective species.
AmorrPHozoa or Sponges generally. Enrozoa generally—tracing the forms
assumed by the respective species from birth to their adult state, &c.
The chief collections of objects illustrative of the Zoology of Ireland are
the following. In Dublin there are of public collections, the Ordnance Mu-
seum, Phoenix Park, good in various departments of Vertebrata and Inverte-
brata ; the Royal College of Surgeons Museum, in which Mr. J. V. Thompson’s
collection of Crustacea is preserved; Trinity College, containing the late Mr.
Tardy’s fine collection of Insects, added to by Dr. Coulter; Natural History
Society, Zoophytes, &c.; Royal Dublin Society, Vertebrata and Invertebrata :
of private collections there are in the metropolis Mr. R. Ball’s, very rich in
the various branches of Vertebrata and Invertebrata; Miss M. Ball’s, Insects
chiefly, and Shells ; Mr. Warren’s, very fine in Shells and Birds; Dr. Farran’s,
also very fine in Shells, and good in Birds; Dr. Bellingham’s, in Entozoa; Mr.
Egan’s, in Insects ; Dr. George J. Allman’s, in freshwater Zoophytes and Mol-
lusea Nudibranchiata; Mr. O’Kelly’s, in Shells*. In Belfast, the Museum of
the Natural History Society contains a general collection of Vertebrata and
Invertebrata, including the late Mr. Templeton’s; Mr. Hyndman’s collection
is rich in Mollusca, Insects, &c.; Mr. Haliday’s very rich in some orders of
Insects; Dr. Drummond’s in Entozoa and various Invertebrata; Mr. Patter-
son’s in Insects; my own in various departments, Vertebrata and Invertebrata.
In Cork, Dr. Harvey has a good collection of Vertebrata, as Mr. Clear has of
Insects ; Mr. Humphreys, of Shells; Mr. Samuel Wright, of Shells, &c.: Mr.
Samuel Green of Youghal has a good collection of the eggs of native birds.
In Limerick, Mr. Wm. Henry Harvey has a good collection of land, fresh-
water and marine Shells. In the county of Tipperary Mr. Robert Davis, Jun.
_ of Clonmel, has a collection of Birds, and of the Eggs of Birds, the best in
Treland: the Rev. Thomas Knox of Toomavara has a good collection of Birds,
_ as Mr. Edward Waller of Finnoe has of land and freshwater Shells: the late
Mr. Hely had an extensive collection of the Insects of his district. Dr. Burkitt
of Waterford has a large collection of Birds. Mr. John Vandeleur Stewart of
Rockhill, Letterkenny, county of Donegal, has an extensive collection of Mam-
_ malia and Birds:—the Rev. Benj. J. Clarke, now of Tuam, of land and fresh-
_ water Mollusca :—Mrs. W. J. Hancock of Lurgan, of Shells, &c., from two lo-
calities on the western coast. The collection of Irish Shells formed by Capt.
_ Brown now belongs to Lady Jardine, and that of Dr. Turton is in the posses-
_ sion of Mr. Jeffreys of Swansea.
__* This collection having been formed previous to the publication of the catalogues
of Dr. Turton and Capt. Brown, is frequently referred to by them. Mr. O’Kelly
states that it was from him Dr. Turton first imbibed a taste for conchology: the genus
Kellia was dedicated to him by this author.
1843, U
290 REPORT—1843.
Finally, it should be stated that the various Classes of the Vertebrate and
Invertebrate animals of Ireland contained in this and the former Report are
not treated of for the first time. They were all studied by Joun TEmPLeE-
TON, and catalogues of the species they embrace, with the exception of Mol-
lusca (omitted only because others had written on it), were published from
his manuscript by his son (who is likewise most favourably known to zoolo-
gists) in the ninth volume of Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History, and in
the first volume of the same work conducted by Charlesworth: the former
volume contains the Invertebrata; the latter, the Vertebrata.
The only portions of the Animal Kingdom as displayed in Ireland and
not included in this Report (two parts), are Insecta (including Myriapoda,
Arachnoida, &c.) and Infusoria. That the Insecta have not been altogether
neglected, the following summary, kindly contributed by Mr. A. H. Haliday,
will show. This distinguished entomologist remarks,—
‘My catalogue, which has lain untouched for several seasons, contained of
named and described species—
“ Coleoptera, about 950. A good many of these from Mr. Tardy’s MSS.,
and as his health for some years previous to his death had not allowed him to
follow the progress of science, the additions from this source may require
some revision.
“Some particulars as to Irish Coleoptera are given in Entomologist, Annals
of Nat. Hist. vol. ii. _Entom. Magazine, vol. iv.
‘* Strepsiptera, 2 species.
“ Orthoptera, about 50. See Ent. Mag. vol. iii. iv.
“ Hemiptera, under 150. The order very little examined yet.
“ Diptera, about 1050. Annals Nat. Hist. ii. & iii. Zool. Journal, v. Ent.
Mag. i. iii. iv.
“ Hymenoptera, about 1100. Annals Nat, Hist. ii, Ent. Mag. 1—5. F.
Walker, Monographia Chalciditum ; A. H. Haliday, Hymenoptera Britannica.
“ Lepidoptera, about 4.50, chiefly from Tardy’s MSS. and collection, and re-
quiring revision, as they had fallen into confusion. I had the liberty of avail-
ing myself of these from the late possessor, Dr. Coulter.
“ Thysanura, about 22, collected by me. See Templeton in Trans. Ent.
Society, vol. i. p. 89.
“ Neuroptera, about 70.
“ Total number of Irish Insects known, about 3850.
“ Some additions in each I owe to W. Clear, Esq., and the collections, &c.
of the late G. Hely and — Hafield, but I suppose nine-tenths of the whole
(except Lepidoptera) were taken near Belfast; so that independent of the
numbers unexamined and unnamed the selection affords no clue to the num-
bers of Zrish Fauna. I have had opportunity however to judge that the south
of Ireland does not afford the same increase of forms which we find in the
like change of latitude in Great Britain.
* Stephens and Curtis both give, scattered throughout their principal works,
information about the insects found in Ireland. There are also a few detached
notices elsewhere which I cannot just now refer to.”
To the above from Mr. Haliday it may be added, that some species found
in the north of Ireland are incidentally noticed in Patterson’s volume on the
‘Insects mentioned in Shakspeare’s Plays; and that in Mr. Denny’s work
entitled ‘ Anoplura Britannica,’ the Irish species are included. Mr. Robert
Templeton, in addition to the Thysanura already mentioned, has published a _
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 291
list of the Myriapoda* and Arachnoida+. The Infusoria have been little
attended to: some native genera and species placed by some authors in the
Animal Kingdom are described in Harvey’s ‘ Manual of the British Algee :’
others of a similar nature have been brought before the Microscopical So-
ciety of Dublin by Capt. Portlock { and Mr. David Moore§. Dr. Geo. J. All-
man || has likewise exhibited to that Society a few species of Jnfusoria, which
it is unnecessary to name here.
In concluding this Report, it may be permitted me to state that no one
can be more sensible than myself of its numerous imperfections. With the
hope of diminishing their number by a more extended time, I was desirous of
its postponement for another year, but it was urged that a Report on the
Fauna of Ireland should be brought forward at an Irish meeting of the Asso-
ciation, and to this consideration I at length waived my desire for a longer
period of preparation.
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES OF PROGRESS IN
SPECIAL RESEARCHES ENTRUSTED TO COMMITTEES
AND INDIVIDUALS.
Report on the Results of the Discussion of the Meteorological Ob-
servations made at Plymouth and Devonport at the request of the
Association. By Wm. Snow Haruis, F.R.S.
THE great mass of the results which these observations necessarily involved
had precluded the possibility of completing a full report, such as would be re-
quisite for the pages of the next volume of the Association: the necessary
documents are, however, sufficiently complete to insure this report for the
next meeting.
The first series of observations were those deduced from Mr. Whewell’s
anemometer, by which a result has been arrived at not dissimilar from that
laid before the Meeting at Manchester, viz. the existence of a sort of trade-
wind or current of air from south to north, in the place where the observa-
tions were made: this was exemplified by large typographical delineations of
the aérial currents by lines proportional to the velocity and direction for
given times laid down for the years 1841 and 18492.
Mr. Harris made some observations on the nature and capabilities of this
instrument, and the results which might be expected from it in deducing the
great annual movements of the atmosphere,
The result of the discussions of the observations with Osler’s anemometer
were next brought under consideration, which being regularly tabulated and
discussed, indicated a mean hourly intensity of the wind in an order similar
* Loudon’s Mag. Nat. Hist. ix.
4 Id. and Zool. Journ, vol. v. p. 400. A singular parasite obtained on a Grey
Seal (Halicherus gryphus) killed on the Dublin coast by Mr, R. Ball, has been inves-
tigated by Dr. Geo. J. Allman, who brings it under Arachnoida and constitutes a
new genus—Ha/larachne—for its reception. He proposes to call the species Halar.
halicheri: it will be described in the Annals of Natural History.
t Microscopic Journal, vol. ii. p. 6. § Id. vol. i. p. 159.
|| An interesting paper on Fossil Infusoria from the county of Down was published
by Dr. Drummond in Charlesworth’s Magazine of Natural History, vol, iii, p, 353.
U 2
292 REPORT— 1843.
but inverse to that of the barometer, a major and minor wave occurring so as
to produce two maxima and two minima of intensity. The full discussion of
these observations had not yet been effected to a sufficient extent to exhibit
all the various relations of the wind required.
The remaining observations on pressure and temperature were next con-
sidered, and graphic delineations of the mean hourly progress of the tempe-
rature, pressure, dew-point and intensity of the wind brought under one point
of view in a general diagram.
Report of the Progress of the Inquiry into the Chemical History of
Colouring Matters. By Professor Kane.
Dr. Kane stated that as yet but little progress had been made in this inquiry.
Some members of the Committee were however engaged in the investigation
of the colouring matters of the lichens, and a few interesting results had been
obtained.
Meteorological Observations at Inverness.
THESE observations were begun on November Ist, 1842, and are to be com-
pleted on November Ist, 1843. The observations with Osler’s anemometer
commence and terminate at the same dates.
It is to be hoped that the Association will authorize the continuation of the
hourly observations, &c. for another year.
D. BrewsTER.
St. Leonard’s College, St. Andrew’s,
August 12, 1843.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. Herscuen, Mr.
Wuewe tt, and Mr. Batty, for revising the Nomenclature of
the Stars.
Tue Committee report that they have reconsidered the subject since their
last Report under a great variety of forms, and taken the opinions of many of
the most eminent astronomers both at home and abroad on it. Understand-
ing, however, that certain celestial charts of great merit have recently ap-
peared in Germany, and that others are in progress of publication, which, if
answerable to the expectations they have been led to form of them, may in-
fluence their decision both as to the names and boundaries of the constella-
tions, they consider it desirable to defer their final decision till they shall
have been enabled to consult these works, which they have accordingly or-
dered; and to meet the expense of which they request a continuance of the
grant of 30/. remaining over applicable to the purposes of the Committee.
(Signed on the part of the Committee) J. F. W. HErscueE.
August 14, 1843.
On the Varieties of the Human Race.
Srvce the last meeting of the British Association, the queries drawn up by
the Committee appointed to investigate the varieties of the human race have
been extensively circulated ; and although that Committee is not prepared to
make any lengthened general report, it is due to the Zoological Section to
state, that some interesting communications have been made by different tra-
vellers, who have found the queries themselves and the classification of their
objects of essential service.
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 293
The Rey. Thomas Heath, who has just returned from the Navigators’
Islands, has prepared a set of answers relating to the inhabitants of those
islands, which it is probable that he will himself lay before the Section; and
he contemplates at an early period giving in a more detailed form the results
of his inquiries concerning language, traditions, mythology and customs.
His investigations tend to show that the peopling of the Pacific Islands must
have proceeded in a westerly direction, contrary to preconceived opinions de-
duced from the prevalence of winds and currents. It is a satisfactory con-
firmation of this traveller's observations, to find that the same conclusion has
been drawn from very careful investigations which have been made during
several years in the Sandwich Islands, and which were communicated to Dr.
Hodgkin, a member of the Committee, in the course of the present year.
It must be gratifying to the members of the Association to learn that the
subject of Ethnology, which on many accounts requires to be promptly and
extensively cultivated, before numerous tribes now inhabiting the globe have
ceased to exist, is not only studied with assiduity by our continental neigh-
bours, but that an Ethnological Society has actually been formed in London
since the last meeting of the British Association. The preliminary address,
drawn up by a friend and countryman of the distinguished Humboldt, is well
worthy the attention of the English ethnologist ; since it points out not merely
the numerous objects of scientific interest embraced by this subject, but also
its peculiar claims to the patronage and support of the eminently maritime and
commercial inhabitants of the British empire.
The expenses hitherto incurred in the distribution of questions and the re-
ceipt of replies have engrossed the trifling sum of 5/. voted for this inquiry
at the last meeting; and it is to be desired that the Association will re-appoint
the Committee with such additions as it may think fit, and will place more
adequate means at its disposal in order to effect a more extensive circulation,
and to carry out other measures which the Committee has already had in con-
templation ; such as translations into foreign languages and the co-operation
of foreign agents.
London, August 14, 1843.
Meteorological Hourly Observations at Unst.
THESE observations, which are not yet reduced, commenced on the 16th of
May 1841, and terminated on the 16th of May 1842.
By some inexplicable accident the observations with the Eivternal Ther-
mometer were omitted, or, rather, the thermometrical observations were made
within the apartment.
The observations, which are very interesting and valuable in other respects,
were under the superintendence of Dr. Edmonstone of Balta Sound.
From the circumstance already mentioned, it will be necessary to have
another year’s observations made at this station.
D. BREWSTER.
St. Leonard’s College, St. Andrew’s,
August 12, 1843. —_———.
On the Action of different Bodies on the Spectrum.
THEsE observations have been carried on since the last meeting of the Asso-
ciation, and the properties of various rare substances have been examined.
Owing to the great want of sunshine in the locality of St. Andrew’s this
year, my observations on the direct solar spectrum have been comparatively
few.
In a short communication to the Physical Section, I shall have occasion to
mention a few of the results obtained during these investigations.
294 mao REPORT—1843.
The pecuniary grant of the Association has not been exhausted ; and it
would be desirable to continue the balance as a new grant.
D. BREWSTER.
St. Leonard’s College, St. Andrew’s,
_ August 12, 1843.
Consumption of Fuel and prevention of Smoke.
In reference to the Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Houldsworth,
Mr. Hodgkinson, Mr. Buck and myself, relative to the consumption of fuel
and prevention of smoke, I have to state, that owing to a press of business,
which required nearly the whole of my attention, I have not been able to de-
vote much time to this inquiry. I believe my friend Mr. Hodgkinson has
been similarly situated, in consequence of his inquiries into the laws which
appear to regulate the elasticity of bodies. Mr. Houldsworth has, however,
been pursuing his investigations on the intensity of heat in the flues and fur-
naces of boilers; and I entertain hopes that your Committee will be enabled to
lay before the British Association, at their next meeting, a full and compre-
hensive report on this important subject.
Wo. FAIRBAIRN.
London, August 16, 1843.
Internal Changes in the Constitution of Metals.
ALTHoUuGH little has yet been done by your Committee appointed to conduct
the “ Experiments to ascertain whether or what changes take place in the in-
ternal constitution of metals when exposed to continual vibration and concus-
sion, as in the case of axles of locomotive engines and other machinery,” I have
the satisfaction to report that a considerable quantity of information has been
received and materials collected for these objects. In this stage of the inquiry
it would be improper to anticipate results, which, from investigations now in
progress, will probably be found different from those which appeared to re-
ceive the sanction of the Mechanical Section at the last meeting. Under all
the circumstances your Committee respectfully pray for a renewal of the grant
of 150/., no part of which has as yet been expended.
' Wo. FAIRBAIRN.
London, August 16, 1843,
Mr. Lucas (a member of the Committee) had tried several experiments
with a view to the elucidation of this question, and he exhibited different
specimens of bar-iron which show the conditions it assumed when manufac-
tured under different circumstances.
Tron of the first quality, and which breaks with a fine fibrous texture, be-
comes by cold swagging changed into a crystalline texture, and consequently
brittle. It is again restored by annealing to its first fibrous state. It has
been found by experiments that mere concussion without any hammering
suffices to produce the same crystalline structure.
Notice of Researches on Asphyxia.
68 Torrington Square, London, 8th August, 1843.
Sir,—On the part of Mr. Erichsen and myself, appointed at the last meet-
ing of the British Association to conduct an experimental inquiry on the sub-
ject of Asphyxia, I beg to say that we have proceeded a certain length with
our inquiry, but that, from various causes, it is not sufficiently advanced to
enable us to give in our report at the ensuing meeting; we therefore crave
TEM 2
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 295
the indulgence of the Association till next year. In the mean time I have to
inform you, that our outlay up to this date is 5/. 3s. 8d., for which, as well
as for any further expenditure, we can be reimbursed when we present our
report.
W. SHarpey, M.D.
John Phillips, Esq.,
Assistant General Secretary of the British Association.
Report of Railroad Section Committee.
Tue Committee have to report the following account of the application of
200/. placed at their disposal at the meeting at Manchester 1842 :—
1842. oy Sey the
eo.) Mr. Lowry for printing cic oyeaie'. so ss es ees 10 0 O
Charles Vignoles, Esq., for work done under his direc-
SaRIGMS Ys Dt IQA UTEUAIY, 0/45 0Vs. 215052, 50m Salw'a)sin ni ko 50 0 O
1843.
April 27. Balance for work done by Mr. Smallman under the di-
repiion jot. Mies Vienioles': = hs 52623: furs nee este nis - 2218 3
To Mr. Robinson Wright, for sections of the Hull and
Selby and Manchester and Leeds railway (51 sheets) 50 O O
To Mr. Jordan, three quarters of a year’s salary, due
SEARO RAR DN 0 2 ple iain 2958 ixyehmins mind sk 15.40)0
—— To Mr. Jordan, one quarter’s salary, from March 25th
MR ea Nee eleler tic idince atin as a o's ys «t's 5 0 0
Balanee in hand... ..- +. 47 1 9
£200 0 O
The Committee are in treaty with Mr. Robinson Wright for a further
series of sections on the Leeds and Selby line, and the Liverpool and Man-
chester line, in case a further grant of 200/. be placed at their disposal by
the meeting at Cork.
The Committee recommend that an application be made to the Govern-
ment on behalf of the Association, to solicit that the Illustrations of the Geo-
logical Structure of the country, hitherto conducted by a Committee of the
Association, may hereafter be continued as a part of the Ordnance Geological
Survey; and further recommend, that the Committee be authorized to pre-
sent the drawings and engraved plates already executed to the Mining Record
Office at the Museum of Economic Geology.
NorRTHAMPTON.
W. BuckLanp.
Joun TAYLor.
The Report of Sir John Herschel on the Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
servations is illustrated by two Plates, exhibiting the barometric undulations
observed by Mr. Birt in 1842. During November 1843 Mr. Birt again ob-
served some very interesting waves, and he is desirous of obtaining, during
next November, as many sections of waves as possible. For this purpose he
will be most happy to furnish gentlemen (on application, by letter, to him-
self, Cambridge House Academy, Cambridge Road, Bethnal Green) with
printed forms and instructions for making the observations, and all observa-
tions with which he may be favoured will be duly acknowledged and care-
fully discussed.
NOTICES
AND
ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS
TO THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
| - 4 FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
AT THE
CORK MEETING, AUGUST 1843.
ADVERTISEMENT.
Tue Epirors of the following Notices consider themselves responsible only
for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are abstracted.
CONTENTS.
/
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Page
Address by the President of the Section, Professor MACCULLAGH weccseessesssere
Sir Witi1am Rowan Hamitton ona Theorem in the Calculus of Differences... 2
——_—_—_— on some investigations connected with the Cal-
culus of Probabilities ..........sseeseeceeseeenes sceeeepatos SRAGeis@audecactnssewscexansee | lo
Professor Luoyp on the Method of Graphical Representation, as applied to Phy-
sical Results .......sccecscseesenvees Orrin bebo basobe aardpocgcde asec aie aug bo abies ogupest ee ap
_ Professor MacCuuiacu on the Theory of Total Reflexion, and of the Insensi-
_ ble Refraction which accompanies it .......++++++ baa caaersenisighs eoeaderene ssccetayizenna 4
Professor Luoyn’s Attempt to explain theoretically the Phenomena of Metallic
: BPEPCHCKION, ....0ss:c0ne Rue ak Gladaien ae ance oils SM tottae taaivigns ta Datoaane linia Nove sees cas ena ioass eG
Sir Davip BrewstEr’s Notice of an Experiment on the Ordinary Refraction of
BRIAR SPAT 2c cccccqasareeng vesiece Erne? Capa yoncHeSBepaioe nckeeaceqaeeeePadee eeageratace: 7
1 Professor MacCutiacu’s Remark relative to the preceding Notice sccsseccersoee 7
_ Sir Davin Brewster on the Action of Two Blue Oils upon Light. 8
j Sir Joun Herscunx’s Notice of a remarkable Photographic Process by which
dormant Pictures are produced capable of development by the Breath or by
Keepin dia Ioist ALMOSPHELe s...cs.corcoesndecscuesenccosev=scsccceevecscsenccsceseee 8
Professor DrapEr on a Change produced by Exposure to the Beams of the Sun
____ in the Properties of an Elementary Substance ...... “Bene SORE SCALES" Acer Got a
5 Rey. Professor Powe. on Elliptic Polarization in Light reflected from various
RUSTANCES SEL 056i2, cc eccsccakteace access Rpersasy Stine cen choehongcaer nectr retard toe OF
om: Rosert Hunt on the Changes which Bodies undergo in the Dark .......... 10
_ Dr. Greene on polishing the Specula of Telescopes .......... serecnssaccsdctegevetsa 11
Sat
k Professor Lioyp on the regular Variations of the Direction and Intensity of the
__ Earth’s Magnetic Force .......sssssseveee Renee aeene na dataetuetiesed teresa as chaesgaeecae, be
Rev. W. Scorzssy on the Circumstances which affect the Energy of Artificial
IRE sss cetscecccceuccucd 4c satan eens edvecuyavaxs: cv<ure Teccentavcvacts caesar eumemity aed
_ Mr. J. P. Joune’s Description of a Galvanometer .......... "er acer t pchelencn Sankeds 1 Lt
_ Mr. Joun Nort on a new Electrical Machine, and upon the Electricity of the
Atmosphere ...... Sitease cts sversdeacnere Bidoesceenes Saees dae scat gs cna haas eccqastcceseeeega’ CO
Rey. Dr. Rosrnson on Determining the Index Error of a Circle by reflexion of
| the Wires of its Telescope ............:.sccccceees avewansansssheceetaedssehee Sewutsccsees’ LO
$ ——-———— on the Barometric Compensation of the Pendulum ..... Se
Captain Larcom on Contour Maps ..... pete antes: sinban ates presetaneRenthaphascvucana’\- 18
Mr. ALexanper Brown’s Account of the extraordinary Flux and Reflux of the
Sea, July 5, 1843, at Arbroath ......sccsccessesscesees ace teeeaves iscicesevetes saan 18
iv CONTENTS.
Mr. Tuomas’s Remarks on Abnormal Tides......... i hoa geeddchddbabe hie uparcmeaceares
Mr. G. Hurcutison on the Nature and Causes of the Diurnal Oscillations of the
Barometer ........ PeUsitheOiedet eka dildeseey evietatts cviddteodt wadddatccbbibueseUetceesewess
Mr. Joun Pricuarv’s Meteorological Register for 1842-43, from Diurnal
Observations taken at Beddgelert in the county of Carnarvon .........00s..000e
Dr. Apsoun on the Correction to be applied for Moisture to the Barometric
Formula ......... acme as\es Eris cneiaisa'stiae dove eee eid fo esi dei pp semana eeneee peers
Corporal WiLu1am Moves’s Observations with the Thermometer made at Aden
AMA TAD a Weetey deiakodayateeh aoe ian dst ahs dbs domakit snob deve ndty =e Honfee=khanbassbeheaats
Rev. Toomas Knox and the Rev. Henry Knox on the quantity of Rain which
falls in the south-west of Ireland, and in Suffolk, with the wind at the seve-
ral points of the Compass .eseeessseeeeseeeees sscleh ou aiepesnciasaeealirenemads eee nae
Mr. E. Hopexinson’s Experiments to prove that all Bodies are in some degree
Inelastic, and a proposed Law for estimating the Deficiency...........s+eeessses
Mr. Cornetius Warp on the Principles of Construction adapted to the per-
fection of the Flute’...ccescisssescsrecesescoscsccees sinadonedeadedsaels eeied's toate toeeevess
CHEMISTRY.
Professor C. G. MosanpeEr on the new metals, Lanthanium and Didymium,
which are associated with Cerium; and on Erbium and Terbium, new Metals
associated with Yttria.......scsseeeeees aaeseas She A. Riis eee
Dr. AnpREws on the Heat of Combination.. Je ood ATT eau seeceutebeeaneeree
Mr, J. P. Jourx on the Calorific Effects of Niagueta: Electricity, and the Me-
chanical Value of Heat .......... au ctidas ousne¥esebeaayaneus seesessdeecnenndawsmphee inane
Professor Draper on the Decomposition of Carbonic Acid Gas, and the Alka-
line Carbonates, by the light of the Sun. .......0.....cc.cccesscecscvevcsaservecsectee
Mr. R. Hunt on Chromatype, a new Photographic Process ......scsesseseesesssees
— on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ............008
on the Influence of Light on a great variety of Metallic and other
Compounds ......... ephseestites deensred suey cewae Sstaee as anne aeeseet seocctavans Reneat
Dr. Apsoun on a new Method of testing the Hygrometric Formula usually
applied to Observations made with a wet and dry Thermometer ...ss0...+0+40
7s Remarks on the Chemistry of the Arsenites .........sssseseeraes
Abstract of a Letter from Dr. Will of Giessen, on an improved Method of ascer-
taining the commercial Value of Alkalies or carbonated Alkalies, Acids, and
Oxides of Manganese ......-ssecesecesenerenenes castuanshecsaasetetescauadyc ttaes merce
Mr. Tuomas Jenntnes’s Chemical Suggestions on the Agriculture of Cork......
Mr. R. W. TownsEnp on the Minerals of Cork........sssscesessessees tia coe
Dr. F. Tamnav on newly-discovered Three-twin Crystals of Harmotome, so
arranged that they form a regular Rhombic Dodecahedron............+++++ seeees
Rev. T. Knox on the Relative Electro-Negative Powers of Iodine and Fluorine
Mr. W. Armstronce on the Electricity of High-Pressure Steam, and a descrip-
tion of a Hydro-Electric Machine ...cccsccecscesceresseeceseenccesesseseeeeees paclcias
Mr. A. Booru on the late Fires at Liverpool, and on Spontaneous Combustion
— on the Chemical Composition of Smoke, its Production and In-
fluence on Organic Substances ......sesseseeeeeeees PAE ce RE a ee er er - vaothestde
Mr. Henry Dircxs on the Production and Prevention of Smoke...........+ Thee
Dr. Picke.xs’s Eulogium on the late Richard Kirwan, LL.D....ccccscersscsreeeee
Page
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19
20
20
22
22
23
25
w
wo
ooo
a heen ee ee
x
CONTENTS.
GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Mr. Ricuarp Grirritu on the Distribution of Erratic Blocks in Ireland, and
particularly those of the North Coasts of the Counties of Sligo and Mayo ...
on the Lower portion of the Carboniferous Limestone
Series of Ireland ......sccccseeesseees HAS argc areesk st Merdeesette deculs fe elta'oMaslontantas
—_—_——__—_————_ on the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian and Silurian
Districts of Ireland ............ SOPRA pa it es ER eat Nae ee AG? am
ood
—_——- — on the occurrence of a Bed of Sand containing recent
Marine Sells, on the summit of a Granite Hill, on the Coast of the County of
EAs ach b bass vareee stanes plas aaipiashaatsldatas at pannaay ASpaniiianseacbuanaebs ke Raieeeeele siatesdd’
Mr. Francis JENNINGS on some Geological Phenomena in the vicinity of Cork
Mr. C. Y. Haines on some Beds of Limestone in the Valley of Cork.......... a.
Mr. Roprricx Impey Murcuison on the ‘“ Permian System” as applied to
Germany, with collateral observations on similar Deposits in other countries ;
showing that the Rothe-todte-liegende, Kupfer-schiefer, Zechstein, and the
lower portion of the Bunter-sandstein, form one natural group, and constitute
the Upper Member of the Palaeozoic Rocks .........scscsesscecsenecececeeeeseceeeans
—_—_—__—_———_ on the important additions recently made to
the Fossil Contents of the Tertiary and Alluvial Basin of the Middle Rhine...
Mr. C. W. Pxacu on the Fossils of Polperro in Cornwall........scecsscecssssecenee
‘Rev. D. Wittriams on the Granite and other Volcanic Rocks of Lundy Island...
Captain Portiock on the Geology of Corfu.....c..0...068 Geashanes SBocsphec Hooeconnan
Messrs. H. D. Rocrrs and W. B. Rocrrs on the Phenomena and Theory of
Earthquakes, and the explanation they afford of certain facts in Geological
Dynamics .....0.sscecesseeeees Ciperes ease anes Rees eaahp aaah omabeit pad esas seapiana eae
The Hon. Captain Carnreix’s Account of the late Earthquake at the Islands
of Antigua and Guadaloupe, on the 8th of February 1843 ...... asain al is savin <h
5 Major N. L. Beamisu on the apparent fall or diminution of Water in the Bal-
tic, and elevation of the Scandinavian Coast.......scececssee Beta Mannccavacevaeenccan
Prof. J. PHiLurps on certain Movements in the Parts of Stratified Rocks........
’s Notice of the Ordnance Geological Museum ........+.0++ iden
_ Letter from the Astronomer Royal to the Earl of Rossz........ caaesbeaseenesencases
_ Col. Sazrnn’s Illustration of the agency of Glaciers in transporting Rocks......
_ Mr. Witt1am Horxrns on the cause of the Motion of Glaciers.........scsesceee
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
_ Mr. G. R. Warernouss on the Classification of the Mammalia...........ce0000+
Mr. Hzaru on the Physical Character, Languages, and Manners of the People
of the Navigators’ Islands...........sscessscoesscncessees Ne chaesenadh ed. PASE RCE = ete
‘Dr. ALLMAN on Certain Peculiarities in the Arteries of the Six-banded Armadillo
‘Mr. H. E. Srrickiann’s Description of a Chart of the Natural Affinities of
_ the Insessorial Order of Birds..........++ aaa Ssbepeasionn
“Mr. Joun Bracxwatt on Periodical Birds observed in the years 1842 and 1843
near Llanrwst, Denbighshire, North Wales .......scsccsessesecusees Rolisercesishnccs
Mr. H. E. Srricktanp on the Structure and Affinities of Upupa, Lin., and
©) Frrisor, Lesson......cccceccscececsececsetecevesacs
POOH eee era e seemed raneseeaeeesraseesesenesy
‘Dr. W. B. Carrenrer on the Microscopic Structure of Shells....ssssesssesereeees
vi CONTENTS,
Professor E. Forzes on the addition of the order Nucleobranchia to the British
Molluscous Fauna.......... 6 Be es Ee ee CN oa eevee Bribes: ode
Messrs. J. ALDER and A, Hancock on some new species of Mollusca nudi-
branchiata, with Observations on the Structure and Development of the Ani-
MARISOL TAL QUACMI ats arse sa cncesnrescssvscboscwasccscntegeccasenneuneevetan sdSsiaanmelevar
Rey. B. J. Crarxe on the Irish species of the genus Limax ............++ wane a sais
Dr. ALLMAN On Plamatella repens.....-.coscorser-arnegeseperesasccccecnscareseresnaceens
Mr. W. Crxar’s List of the Insects found in the county of Cork.......s1eseereeee
Dr. ALLMAN on a new Genus of Terrestrial Gasteropod........ wescspniceden —-
*s Synopsis of the Genera and Species of Zoophytes inhabiting the
fresh waters Of Lreland...cevesscssevsvvcvecsvvcsevbesssuntsacscteuesssacsacubacesessbbsees
Mr. E. Lanxester on the occurrence of Calothrix nivea, and the Infusoria of
sulphureous waters at Cove, Ireland......s.cccsssesevescsepenesesceesvecesaeenessscees
Mr. R. Dowpen’s Account of a Luminous Appearance on the Common
Marigold, Calendula vulgaris...ssssevessersesensensesceevanesssessareceesssensensenay ens
Dr. Powsr’s Catalogue of the Plants found in the neighbourhood of Cork......
MEDICAL SCIENCE.
Dr. OuutFFE on a peculiar Disease of the Biliary Ducts...... eect ri. ces Sense
Dr. Houston on the Means adopted by Nature in the Suppression of Hemor-
rhage from Targa Arterios:,.idsvavees co svnanveslegescsbaassies veep eddiees Sobdebsish Vevedae
Prof. Harrison on the Treatment of External Aneurism by Pressure,....s...s40+
Dr. Pickeuxs on the Deleterious Effects of Ginanthe Crocata.....cccsssscreeseeeeee
New Instrument for the Removal of Calculi..........c.cccecececeseeesneeeen ones Ps ooh
Dr. Broox’s Description of the Sound useful for the Detection of Small Calculi
Dr. Houston on the Circulation of the Blood in Acardiac Foetuses.....2...++00+
Mr. Joun Pornam on the treatment of Gangrene of the Lungs by Chloride of
DUlCe. ccatenenscchsCsacsscassxesuoepees (egsecae Poeeresecesneeravoesederenes esrearendas danasse
Mr. J. F. Ox.tirre on Intestinal Obstruction.,........ Tisadaaan ac hues En CA ERMEE SEE
Mr. Joun E. Ericusen’s Abstract of a paper on the proximate cause of Death
after the Spontaneous Introduction of Air into the Veins
Mr. Crontn on the Statistical Results of Amputation ..............cscsseeeeeeecnsens
Dr. O’Connor on the Sudden Falling off of the Hair of the Head, Eyebrows
PROPOR meee eee eet ane nanaee
and Eyelashes from Fright...............64 BEE cele daa e LT ad sasceedbect ces bee
Dr. WHERLAND on a Rare Case of Midwifery which occurred in the Cork South
District Lying-in Hospital in July 1843.....0....006 SWB «055 cacaloscsascnapmennennne
Mr. Joun Popuaw’s Statistical Returns of the North Cork Infirmary during
a period of Five Years, from July 1838 to June 1843........ sate NT ae ddest tha oe
Dr. M’Evers on a peculiar case of Sterility......... Wacdeddsandddecpeabuvceae. sebdeavs
Dr. Bevan on the Tests for Arsenic....ssssssees RaLiseehiicesesaees saceoians? encacateraa
STATISTICS.
Major N. L. Bzamisn’s Statistical Report of the Parish of St. Michael........+
Dr. W. C. Tayzor on the Irish Silk Manufacturres.....sscosescssevessssesetectscesens
——_ on the Pauper Lunatics of Ireland, from materials supplied
by the Earl of Devon.....cccsccccccvccccencnseeneacacssoee sees seveseeeese Persvendes teases
Mr. Bianconi on certain Public Conveyances established in Ireland......se0ss+0++
Page
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81
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CONTENTS, Vii
Page
On the Statistics of the Parish of Kilmurry, a rural district in the Barony of
West Muskerry, in the County of Cork, from materials supplied by the Rev.
Wm. Keleher.......cc.sccsscccsscccccsccecsescebecccesenstccsscssscseseesecevessuseses snore
Mr. O’Franacan’s Description of the Blackwater River.........sesseeesees sesteeese 93
Signor Enrico Meyer on the Infant Industrial Schools of Tuscany ......+++.+++- 93
Mrs. Grieert on the Progress of the Willingdon Agricultural School........+.0. 94
Professor Lawson on the connexion between Statistics and Political Economy 94
Professor PowxEutu’s Contributions to Academical Statistics, Oxford............+6 95
Josrru Peri Catiow on a natural Relation between the Season of Death and
the Anniversary of the Season of Birth, which varies with each Month of
Birth; and on a similarly varying tendency to Death in the Anniversary of
the Natal Month..........ccsccsscoscsentscccntecaccccnceeascesseecascscssescucces Pesaran) 95
Mr. R. Downen on the Effect of Light as a part of Vital Statistics....... easnesat 96
———-—_-— on the Heat and Warmth of Cottages ............ Sceabhialse leans we 96
Mr. J. Heywoop’s Abstract of the Report of the French Minister of Public
Instruction on the Higher Schools of France.......sssessessseeeee sits se “oder 96
Dr. OsBorne on the Statistics of Lunacy, with special relation to the Asylum
in Cork...... Sachse neateatnin Sere eece nc eeerny Pestuist peda detente erieetan cect oniga.inataaiealeabte « 96
Mr. W. Lzearuam on the present Infecting and Demoralizing State of the
Lodging-houses for the travelling Poor in the Towns and Villages of England 96
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Mr. Scorr Russet on the Application of our Knowledge of the Laws of Sound
to the Construction of Buildings...........cssesessssseseceseeeceteeesreceeees Hae aeeaes 96
Mr. Henry Drrcxs on the Construction of Luntley’s Shadowless Gas-burners,
and the shape of Glass Chimneys for Lamps ....s0.--sessecaseeseeseeresenees voones 98
on the Prevention of Smoke from Engine Boilers and other
HTN UHAGES On ceaerssedshicnonutodeieenssesnanne Daleete dente atee stale s vais steieiealeteeicics sis sain aciaissir' tes 98
Mr. Joun Cuanter’s Description of a Furnace for economizing Fuel and pre-
venting Smoke ..........s000. Se Sasnn aerate Meh epoca sees eae Pbavtawstis si coneetseetee deus 99
Mr. Ryan on the Application of Water as a Moving Power......... brndo WE soeree 99
Mr. J. 1. Hawxins on a New Oil for lubricating Machinery............0s0se00e oe §=99
——__—______———-_ on the formation of Concrete .......ssss0. seseseseees seagttenbaee 99
————_—+—————- on the Marine Propeller invented about the year 1825 by
Mire Jacob Perkins .........0scascsanesersaniees Saqsadtee Alec RS EARS Ry vee seseee 100
Mr. P. Leauy on a Method of ascertaining inaccessible Distances at Sea or
WEAN ew dine vaseosvens WG Daoe real CMa UeMeMURE sMablatecece Reel wos tacit miptosmene onsite peeeseeetd 101
Mr. J. P. Grotuet’s Description of a Process for preventing the deleterious |
effects of Dry Grinding....0.....++4 sophseperbanshe seedone -AnoeAne poeneeaaeate es eenenset tO
Capt. A. W. Stzien on the Buoyant Floatwater...... bestacies wae ene sae so ecpetaas +. 102
Dr. Roprnson’s Addendum on the Barometric Compensation of the Pendulum 102
UGTA eRe Ae ee sasgahotenen nae em Seuawaasmuapss'sces fnattinocsehcd eecbae eceensasneee LOS
MATE Ges SLDSCHIDET' Ss ccvandssdiaseanvebecdsadssedegcctieh cde cscastassheccecsaabecsciseness LAO
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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Tue President, Professor MacCullagh, on taking the Chair, remarked on the con-
nexion between pure mathematics and the physical sciences, and the reasons which
had induced the Association to class them together as objects of the same Section.
The geometer may pursue his speculations to an indefinite extent, without any refer-
ence to the external world; but he finds the best and most useful applications of them in
the field of physical research,—in the study of those material laws, the knowledge of
which is an essential element in the progress of the human race. Independently of
their utility, the minds feels a natural—almost an irresistible—tendency to such ap-
plications. Even the great geometer of antiquity (Archimedes), who thought his
science degraded the moment it became conversant about material objects, and was
made subservient to merely useful purposes, was yet compelled, by the strong impulse
of a natural curiosity, to deviate from the proud but narrow rule which he had pre-
scribed to himself; and then the same splendid genius which had enabled him to find
the proportions of the cylinder and sphere, and to approximate to some of the most
refined methods of the modern geometry, led him to lay the foundation of Ra-
tional Mechanics—of that science which has since grown to such a wonderful ex-
tent, and has contributed so powerfully to the advancement of civilization. The
laws of the visible universe are written in the diagrams of geometry and in the
symbols of analysis; and this remarkable correspondence, established by the will
of the Creator, between the mathematical conceptions of the human mind and the
phznomena of the external world, was perceived by the philosophers of remote an-~
v tiquity as clearly, and recognized as fully, as it is by those of the present day.
~
ow
_ It was the perception of this truth which caused Pythagoras to say that numbers are
_ the principles of all things, and Plato to affirm that geometry is employed in the con-
struction of the world. So great, indeed, was the predilection of Plato for geometry,
_ that he required a previous acquaintance with it from all those who wished to become
_ students of his philosophy ; but while we agree with him as to the great importance
_ of that science, more especially as an introduction to the study of physics, we shall not
follow his example so far as to inscribe over the door of our Section-room, ‘“ Let no
one who is not versed in geometry enter here ;” for then we should exclude that large
and important class of physical inquirers whose object is merely the discovery of new
facts, and of elementary laws, which are the expressions of such facts. For in this way
much may be done, and much has been done, by men slightly or not at all acquainted
with mathematics, in which category will be found some of the most eminent names
of modern science. But beyond such elementary laws it is impossible to proceed (as
many an inventive mind has found when it was too late) without the help of mathe-
matical science, which alone is competent to grasp the higher generalizations, and to
discover those remoter laws which link together the more complicated phenomena,
and enable us to predict them in all possible cases.
1843. B
9 REPORT—1843,.
On a Theorem in the Calculus of Differences. By Sir Witt1AM Rowan
HamILTon.
It is a curious and may be considered ay an important problem in the Calculus of
Differences, to assign an expression for the sum of the series
X=u,, (w+n)"—u,_) “ - (@+n—1)®+4+u,_,. es (a-+n—2)"— &e.; (J.)
which differs from the series for A” #” only by its introducing the coefficients u, deter-
mined by the conditions that
u;= +1, 0, or —1, according asx+i>0,=0,or<0. ..... (2.)
These conditions may be expressed by the formula
ao
y= af Lee (CEA EB scalars aolainee ets (3.)
awJo ¢t
and if we observe yy
T
i. sin (at + 6) =a sin (at+o4+—
n
(+) sin (4¢+ 6) = a’ sin (att b +"
we shall see that the series (1.) may be put under the form
2 £7 at (ad ne n z)
=— —(—) A tt——);...0 ee (4
Kao Caz) aren (21-4 Y
the characteristic A of difference being referred to x. But
A sin (24a +4 @) = 2sine sin (2er+6+a4+2),
A” sin (2ea + 8) = (2sin «)” sin (2ae+4 B+nat =):
therefore, changing ¢, in (4.), to 2, we find
if we make, for abridgement,
eh g® ott Care Ye way, FMR ERIE REN (6.)
©
Again, the process of integration by parts gives
da ae 7° de d®*A
fs ees Sasso =if’ wrt da®-* 7 na?
provided that the function
ni mee
a da
vanishes both when # = 0 and when a = ©, and does not become infinite for any —
intermediate value of «, conditions which are satisfied here ; we have, therefore, finally,
Ka1.2.B.an (" da ° Hed nn* a: dna CE
wy -and.c= 2a +n, tence eee es (8B)
Hence, if we make
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3
we shall have the expression
ive) . nN oth on
pai’ ip (AR yo SWB by 9: dice lon on hy
eS ~
as a transformation of the formula
1 n n(n—1
Pe ton Fey OS ety" = Ke,
hess (10.)
—(n—c) + - (n—e—2)” = is )) (n—c—4)"+ &e. }s
each partial series being continued only as far as the quantities raised to the nth power
are positive. Laplace has arrived at an equivalent transformation, but by a much less
simple analysis.
On some investigations connected with the Calculus of Probabilities.
By Sir Witt1am Rowan Hamitton.
Many questions in the mathematical theory of probabilities conduct to approxi-
mate expressions of the form
2 Pipi ba
P=anf die™™, that is, p = © (2),
0
© being the characteristic of a certain function which has been tabulated by Encke in
a memoir on the method of least squares, translated in vol. ii, part 7. of Taylor’s
_ Seientific Memoirs, p being the probability sought, and ¢ an auxiliary variable. Sir
William Hamilton proposes to treat the equation p = © (4) as being, in all cases, ri-
_ gorous, by suitably determining the auxiliary variable ¢, which variable he proposes to
call the argument of probability, because it is the argument with which Encke’s Table
_ should be entered, in order to obtain, from that table, the numerical value of the pro:
bability », He shows how to improve several of Laplace’s approximate expressions
for this argument ¢, and uses in many such questions a transformation of a certain
double definite integral of the form = -
1 . ao 2 1
a dr due’ Ucos (2 rs’ uV)= Or+tyirs Jide Wyrs A,
0 0
in which
U=1 + aU? + au... ; V=1 + 6, w+ Bu’. ”
while », v.... depend on #;.,.,;..and7; thus »} = 4¢:— 17°. The function ©
has the same form as before, so that if, for sufficiently large values of the number s
(which represents, in many questions, the number of observations or events to be
combined) a probability p can be expressed, exactly or nearly, by the foregoing double
_ definite integral, then the argument t, of this probability p, will be expressed nearly
_ by the formula
Re ye ea fey
t=r(l dein * 4. V2 2),
Numerical examples were given, in which the approximations thus obtained ap-
ared to be very close. For instance, if a common die (supposed to be perfectly fair)
_ be thrown six times, the probability that the sum of the six numbers which turn up in
_ these six throws shall not be less than 18, nor more than 24, as represented rigorously
_ by the integral
a 2 77, sin7a /sin6x\° . . 27448
= 5/2 aa (; aa) , or by the fraction Tax i
while the approximate formula, deduced by the foregoing method, gives 27449 for the
numerator of this fraction, or for the product 6° p; the error of the resulting proba-
4 REPORT—1843.,
bility being therefore in this case only 6~®. The advantage of the method is that
what has here been called the argument of probability depends, in general, more simply
than the probability itself on the conditions of a question; while the introduction of
this new conception and nomenclature allows some of the most important known re-
sults respecting the mean results of many observations to be enunciated in a simple
and elegant manner.
A paper was read on some Investigations connected with Equations of the Fifth
Degree, by Sir W. Hamilton.
On the Method of Graphical Representation, as applied to Physical Results.
By Professor Lioyn.
It is well known that if a series of ordinates be taken to denote the observed values
of any physical quantities, the corresponding abscissz denoting the respective values
of the variable upon which it depends, the course of the first variable, at intermediate
points, may be represented by drawing a curve through the extremities of the ordinates
of observation, the exactness of the representation depending on the shortness of the
intervals. The observed values of the ordinates, however, being subject to the errors
of observation, it is manifest that their extremities are not necessarily points of the
representative curve; and the object of the author was to inquire whether, and under
what circumstances, other points could be substituted for those of immediate observa-
tion, the former being connected with the latter by known relations. Such a course
is usually resorted to, when the intervals of observation are small, and the errors con-
siderable, the curve being in such cases drawn (not through, but) among the points
furnished by observation, allowing a weight in proportion to their number.
The validity of this process appears to depend on two principles, viz. first, that the
positive and negative errors are equally probable; and second, the assumption that the
function represented is not subject to abrupt changes. It is obvious, however, that its
applicability in any particular case will depend upon the relation which subsists be-
tween the intervals of the successive ordinates and their probable errors; and it is
important to know what that condition is. The points connected with those of observa-
tion by the simplest relations, are those obtained by bisecting the interval between
each successive pair, or taking the arithmetical mean both of the ordinates and ab-
scisse. It is very easy to express in this case the relation sought. If f(x) denote the
value of the function represented, corresponding to the abscissa a, and if x — h denote
the preceding value of the latter, then it is obvious that the error committed by taking
the arithmetical mean of f(x) and f(a — h), for the ordinate corresponding to the ab-
scissa « — th, will be represented by the series fs
h?
P@) re =I 1.2.3 5 Bias
in which, in general, the first term may be made to surpass the sum of all the rest, by
taking h sufficiently small. On the other hand, the error saved by the substitution
of the arithmetical mean of the observed ordinates is
‘(1-Js),
e denoting the probable error of a single observation; and the process in question will
be advantageous when the former of these quantities is /ess than the latter. It thus
appears that the condition of its applicability may be expressed by the following rela-
tion between / and e: V2(VI1)e
P< PPA gg OT
On the Theory of Total Reflexion, and of the Insensible Refraction which
accompanies it. By Professor MAcCuLLaGu.
The phznomenon of total reflexion has for a long period excited the attention of ma-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5
thematicians, who have endeavoured in vain to explain it; and it was regarded by
Newton as an insuperable objection to the undulatory theory of light; for, according
to him, the vibrations of the «ther could not be suddenly stopped at the separating
surface of the denser and rarer medium: as an elastic fluid communicates motion on
all sides, the vibrations, on arriving at the surface of the rarer medium, would neces-
sarily pass into it, and thus there would always be some refracted light; and total
reflexion, on the hypothesis of undulations, would be impossible. It is curious, there-
fore, to observe that the phenomenon is now explained, and that for the first time,
on this very hypothesis, and all its laws deduced with geometrical accuracy. The
principles, however, on which the explanation is founded, are altogether new, though
in strict accordance with the theory of waves, and the general laws of dynamics.
Before the condition of the totally reflected light can be determined, the motion
which takes place in the rarer medium,—a motion not observable by the senses,—must
be ascertained. This question is one which it was impossible to solve by the imperfect
methods and defective principles hitherto employed, though Poisson had caught a
glimpse of the way in which the solution was likely to be effected. In some investi-
gations respecting the transmission of motion from one elastic medium into another,
across their separating surface, he had found that in certain cases the disturbance in
the second medium would be proportional to a negative exponential, which would di-
minish very rapidly as the distance from the separating surface increased; so that at
avery small distance from that surface the disturbance would be quite insensible. This
result enabled him, in a general way, to remove the objection which Newton had urged
against the undulatory theory, because it furnished an instance in which the vibration
did not sensibly spread beyond a certain surface; but, except so far as this, it did not
give the least assistance in the solution of the question of total reflexion. It showed
that a solution might possibly be found on the hypothesis of undulations; but this was
all that it accomplished, for the formulz of Poisson had not the remotest application to
the case of luminiferous vibrations. The problem next occupied the attention of Fresnel,
who succeeded completely in discovering the motions of the reflected light, by a most
ingenious interpretation of the formulz which he had found for the usual case of par-
tial reflexion, and which give imaginary results when the reflexion is total. Perhaps
the rare sagacity of Fresnel was never more conspicuous than in this remarkable in-
stance, in which he applied his formule to a case which they did not originally include,
and thus succeeded in divining, as it were, the laws that he was in search of. But
these laws rested on no physical foundation ; nor could they be made to do so without
previously determining the laws of the insensible refraction with which they are neces-
sarily connected. These latter laws, however, Fresnel had no means of divining, as
he did the former. The meaning of the imaginary formule it was in this case im-
possible to conjecture; and even if it had been possible, still the two sets of laws could
not have been connected, as the general relations which subsist between them were
unknown; the relations which Fresnel had found sufficient in the case of partial re-
flexion being altogether powerless in this.
To find the laws of insensible refraction, it was necessary to know the general differ-
ential equations for the propagation of light in a transparent medium; and to deduce
from these laws the laws of total reflexion, it was necessary to know the general equa-
tions which subsist at the confines of two transparent media. Both these sets of equa-
tions were given, for the first time, by Professor MacCullagh, the former having been
originally published in the Philosophical Magazine for February 1836, the latter in
the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy for December 1839. The equations had
been first applied to the solution of the problem of reflexion and refraction, when the
reflexion is partial and the refraction sensible, giving rise to one or two visible re-
fracted rays, which is the simpler case, and was therefore the first solved, the solution
having been given in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy at the latter date.
But it was some months later before Mr. MacCullagh perceived that these same dif-
ferential equations included also the laws of total reflexion and of the accompanying
insensible refraction, the only difference between this and the former case being the
assumption of more general expressions for the integral of the equations of propaga-
tion. The expression for the displacement parallel to each axis of coordinates now
contains a negative exponential of which the exponent is a linear function of the co-
6 REPORT—1843.
ordinates, this exponential being multiplied by a quantity which contains, in general,
both the sine and cosine of the phase. By reason of this exponential, the vibrations in
the rarer medium rapidly decrease in magnitude as the distance from the surface of
separation increases, becoming insensible at a very small distance from that surface ;
and when the aforesaid expressions for the displacements are substituted in the equa-
tions of propagation, we get certain relations among the constants, which relations are
in fact the laws of the insensible refraction. The laws of the totally reflected light are
then easily deduced by means of the equations which subsist at the separating surface.
It is to be observed that the reflexion is not assumed to be total, but is proved to be
so, from the equations last mentioned ; and the laws of this reflexion come out the very
same (for ordinary media) as those discovered by Fresnel in the singular way before
alluded to.
On account of the novel character of the laws of insensible refraction, Mr. Mac-
Cullagh entered into some details respecting them. The vibrations are in this case
elliptical, every particle of the rarer medium describing an ellipse, which has the di-
rections and the proportion of its axes everywhere the same; but the magnitudes of
its axes rapidly diminish as the distance of the particle from the common surface of
the media increases. It would, however, take up too much space to go into these
laws, which will be published in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy.
The problem of total reflexion was considered by Fresnel only with reference to two
ordinary media. The preceding method, however, is general, and solves the problem
in its widest extent. The most complicated case is that in which the rarer medium
is supposed to be a doubly refracting crystal, the crystal being covered with a fluid of
greater refractive power than itself, so that total reflexion may take place at the com-
mon surface. We then have insensible refraction within the crystal, and it is found
that this refraction is double, giving rise to two insensible waves, in each of which the
vibrations are elliptical. The laws of this insensible double refraction are very general,
and include, as a particular case, the laws of double refraction discovered by Fresnel.
Attempt to explain theoretically the Phenomena of Metallic Reflexion.
By Professor Luoyp.
The physical hypothesis from which the author sets out is, that the elasticity of the
zther (which is usually assumed to change abruptly at the confines of transparent
media) varies gradually at the surface of a metal, so as to constitute, in fact, an infi-
nite series of thin plates of infinitesimal thickness. In such a medium it is natural
to suppose that there will be an infinite series of infinitesimal vibrations, reflected at
every point in the course of the ray, the sum of which will constitute the resultant
vibration. The magnitude (V) and phase (A) of this resultant vibration will be given
by the formule
VoosA.=,f v cos a, VsnA=/f osin a;
where v denotes the magnitude of the infinitesimal vibration reflected at any point
of the varying medium, and « its phase, and where the integrals are taken between
limits porreapansing to those of the varying medium. In these expressions the quan-
tity v is readily de uced, in terms of the angle which the direction of the ray makes
with the normal to the bounding surface, by setting out from Fresnel’s expressions
for the reflected vibrations in the case of a finite change of elasticity. The general
value of « is also readily expressed in terms of the same angle, when the relation be-
tween this angle and the distance from the first surface of the varying medium is
known. The latter relation cannot be certainly known a priori; but the author
showed that there was reason to believe that it was expressed by the simple formula
sin @= sin © e {*;
© being the angle of incidence on the exterior surface of the medium, and q a con-
stant. This being assumed, the two components of the resulting reflected vibration
are expressed by single integrals, and the problem is therefore reduced to quadratures ;
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7
the expressions are different, according as the light is polarized in the plane of inci-
dence, or in the perpendicular plane.
On pursuing the inquiry, however, the author found reason to conclude that there
could be no sensible intensity in the reflected light without a sudden change in the
elasticity of the medium; and he was accordingly driven to combine this hypothesis
with that already referred to, the xther being supposed to vary continuously up to
a certain plane, at which an abrupt change took place. On this principle he has
obtained expressions for the magnitudes of the reflected vibrations corresponding with
those of Fresnel, the two angles which enter the formule being connected with the
original angle of incidence by the known law of the sines, by means of two constants.
These expressions seem to explain, generally at least, the variations in the intensity
of the light reflected from metals; but it remains to account for the difference of
phase depending on the plane of polarization. The author hoped that he would be
excused by the Section in laying before it an outline of a theory still incomplete.
The problem, however, is one encompassed with difficulties; and any attempt, how-
ever imperfect, to obtain its solution may serve to direct further investigation,
Notice of an Experiment on the Ordinary Refraction of Iceland Spar.
By Sir DAvip Brewster.
Professor MacCullagh of Trinity College, Dublin, in following out an hypothesis re-
specting light, has been led to a law of double refraction more general than that of
Fresnel. One of the results of this law, though not a necessary consequence of Pro-
fessor MacCullagh’s theoretical views, was, that in all crystals with one axisiof double
refraction the ordinary ray was refracted according to a law different from that of
Snellius. Instead of the two refractions being regulated by the sphere and spheroid
of Huygens, they would be regulated by two ellipsoids touching each other at the ex-
tremities of a common diameter coinciding with the axis of the crystal—one ellipsoid
differing slightly from a sphere, and the other slightly from a spheroid. Professor
MacCullagh requested me to ascertain whether or not the ordinary refraction of Iceland
spar varied at different inclinations to the axis, in the hope of finding such a differ-
ence as his theoretical views indicated. In place of doing this, by measuring the
ordinary index with two separate prisms, I adopted the plan of cutting two prisms out
of the same piece of Iceland spar—one having the refracted ray coincident with, and
the other perpendicular to, the axis. These prisms were fastened by cement to a
plate of glass, and their second surfaces ground and polished in that state, so that their
refracting angles were necessarily equal. When this was done, I refracted the yellow
homogeneous ray D of Fraunhofer, produced by a candle witha salted wick, and passing
through a narrow aperture; and, looking through the refracting edges of both prisms
with the same eye, I observed the most perfect coincidence between the two refracted
images of the sharp line D, This placed it beyond a doubt that the ordinary ray had
the same index of refraction in both prisms within the limits of the errors of observa-
tion. Professor MacCullagh’s law, however, may still be true. The prisms used in this
experiment were made with singular accuracy by Mr, George Sanderson, lapidary,
Edinburgh.
Remark relative to the preceding Notice. By Professor MacCuLuacn.
The law referred to in the foregoing communication was merely conjectural, As
Sir David Brewster has rightly remarked, it is not a necessary consequence of any
principles that I have adopted. Its existence was barely permitted by those princi-
ples, so long as they were not restricted by the usual hypothesis of symmetry. Per-
haps it may be proper to mention that the law was proposed chiefly with the view of
accounting for certain very singular phenomena observed by Sir D. Brewster in the
reflexion of light from Iceland spar. These phenomena are unsymmetrical with re-
spect to the axis of the crystal, and this circumstance induced me to suppose that there
might possibly be a corresponding want of symmetry in the law of refraction. The
8 REPORT—1843.
experiment which Sir D, Brewster was so kind as to make at my request, is, so far as
it goes, against this supposition ; and if further experiments should tend the same
way (as most probably they will) it will follow that the unsymmetrical effects of re-
flexion do not arise from any cause which penetrates the interior of the crystal, but
only from some peculiar structure of its surface. When the action of the crystal upon
light is supposed to be symmetrical round its axis, the law in question reduces itself
to that of Huygens; and in the case of a biaxal crystal, when the phenomena are
supposed to be symmetrical with respect to three rectangular axes, the law coincides
with that of Fresnel.
On the Action of Two Blue Oils upon Light. By Sir D. BRewsTER.
Having lately received, through the kindness of Dr. Gilbert, two remarkable oils of
a deep blue colour, namely, the vil from the Matricaria chamomilla, and that from the
Achillea millefolia, I was desirous of ascertaining the nature of their action upon the
solar spectrum. Without entering into details respecting the general action of these
oils upon the different coloured portions of the spectrum, I shall confine myself to a
slight notice of their specific action, in which they differ from all the various bodies
which I have yet examined.
Between the two lines A and B of Fraunhofer’s map of the spectrum there are two
groups of lines shown in that map. The two oils absorb the light in these portions
more powerfully than the portions adjacent to them. No other fluid or solid body
on which I have hitherto made experiments acts in a similar manner; but what is
very remarkable, the earth’s atmosphere exercises a similar action when the sun’s
light passes through its greatest thickness at sunrise or sunset.
Notice of a remarkable Photographie Process by which dormant Pictures are
produced capable of development by the Breath or by keeping in a Moist
Atmosphere. By Sir Jonny HERSCHEL.
If nitrate of silver, specific gravity 1200, be added to ferro-tartaric acid, specific
gravity 1:023, a precipitate falls, which is in great measure redissolved by a gentle
heat, leaving a black sediment, which being cleared by subsidence, a liquid of a pale
yellow colour is obtained, in which a further addition of the nitrate causes no turbid-
ness. When the total quantity of the nitrated solution added amounts to about half
the bulk of the ferro-tartaric acid, it is enough. ‘The liquid so prepared does not alter
by keeping in the dark.
Spread on paper and exposed wet to the sunshine (partly shaded) for a few seconds,
no impression seems tohave been made, but by degrees (although withdrawn from the
action of the light) it developes itself spontaneously, and at length becomes very in-
tense. But if the paper be thoroughly dried in the dark (in which state it is of a very
pale greenish yellow colour) it possesses the singular property of receiving a dormant
or invisible picture ; to produce which (if it be, for instance, an engraving that is to
be copied) from thirty seconds to a minute’s exposure in the sunshine is requisite. It
should not be continued too long, as not only is the ultimate effect less striking, but a
picture begins to be visibly produced, which darkens spontaneously after it is with-
drawn, But if the exposure be discontinued before this effect comes on, an invisible
impression is the result, to develope which all that is necessary is to breathe upon it,
when it immediately appears and very speedily acquires an extraordinary intensity and
sharpness as if by magic. Instead of the breath it may be subjected to the regulated
action of aqueous vapour, by laying it in a blotting-paper book of which some of the
outer Jeaves on both sides have been damped, or by holding it over warm water.
Many preparations both of silver and gold possess a similar property, in an inferior
eat a none that I have yet met with to anything like the extent of that above
described.
eee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 9
On a Change produced by Exposure to the Beams of the Sun in the Proper-
ties of an Elementary Substance. By Professor Draper of New York,
Communicated by Dr. Kane.
Dr. Kane preliminarily described the general properties of the solar beam as acting
on chemical substances, and pointed out the brilliant success with which the experi-
ments of Daguerre and Niepce, of Herschel, Talbot and Hunt, had been crowned.
He reminded the Section, that in analysing the solar beam, all parts of it were not
found equally active in producing chemical effects ; and that, in fact, the conclusion
was now very generally admitted, that in the solar beam there are three distinct sets of
rays :—those possessing heating properties, which are the calorific rays; those pro-
ducing the sensation of light—the luminous rays; and those which effect chemical
changes, which Dr. Draper proposes to call the Tithonic rays; for he, adopting the
idea of peculiar matters of light and heat, considers that the chemical effects are pro-
duced by a peculiar material agent, which he terms Tithonicity. Dr. Kane then pro-
ceeded to read Professor Draper’s paper itself, which commenced with announcing the
principle that “chlorine gas, which has been exposed to the daylight or to sunshine,
possesses qualities which are not possessed by chlorine made and kept in the dark.
It acquires from that exposure the property of speedily uniting with hydrogen gas.
This new property of the chlorine arises from its having absorbed tithonic rays, corre-
sponding in refrangibility to the indigo.” The property thus acquired is not transient,
like heat, but permanent. A certain portion of the tithonic rays is absorbed, and
becomes latent, before any visible effects ensue. Light, in producing a chemical
effect, undergoes a change as well as the substance on which it acts: it becomes de-
tithonized. The chemical force of the indigo ray is to that of the red as 66°6 to 1.
The author remarked, that we are still imperfectly acquainted with the constitution of
elementary bodies, inasmuch as we know, in general, only those properties which they
possess after having been subjected to the influence of light.
On Elliptic Polarization in Light reflected from various substances.
By the Rev. Professor PowELt.
In a communication to the Association at the Manchester Meeting, the author
stated, amongst other results connected with this subject, that he had observed the
phenomena of elliptic polarization in polarized light reflected from several mineral
substances, in which it had not been (as far as he was aware) hitherto noticed. This
inquiry bears upon the general question, to what substances is the property of con-
verting plane into elliptic vibrations in the reflected light, confined? As far as obser-
vation has yet gone, it seems restricted in general to metallic substances, whether pure
or compound ; but to this there seem some exceptions, and it remains to be determined
what proportion of metal in a compound is necessary to produce the result. As these
questions will require an extensive range of observation for even a limited solution,
the author is anxious to lay before the Association a list of all the substances he has
_ examined, in the hope that others will be added to their number, whether by the in-
dependent experiments of those who may have access to such specimens, or by
their favouring the author with the loan of such substances for examination.
The mode of examination is precisely that of which the author gave a sketch at
the last meeting, and a full account of whish is published in the Philosophical Trans-
actions for the present year. It is necessary that the specimens for examination should
present a tolerably plane surface, capable of reflecting a sufficient quantity of light,
of more than one-tenth of an inch square.
The foliowing list contains the name of each substance examined, as labeled, and
in some instances numbered, in the Buckland Collection at Oxford. Those marked
with (B.) are among the substances examined by Sir D. Brewster. (Phil. Trans. 1830.)
The proportion of metal given by analysis is added wherever the author has been
able to find it given.
10 REPORT—1843.
Ellipticity ; at Incidence
40°, 70°.
Name of Substance, Remarks and Analysis.
1, Mica from Hudson’s Strait,|very small] very small “ny ellipticity in
opake metallic appearance many specimens due to
By OIBOR MUCK Va syecvnttapysas aes none none films,
3. Labrador spar, several va-
NEVES Brataemet esas teraedte. none none
4, Sulphuret of lead (galaena),) small |considerable|ead 85 in 100,—Thomson,
to ee abi es eee dea eae Jameson.
5, Variegated do. No. 350 ...!| small _|considerable/Ividescent,changes with tints.
Gy Diltharee’ oes... ces. Heree very small] large
7. Sulphuret of copper......... very small]considerable
8. Peacock copper ore (twolvery small,|considerable|Copper 69 in 100,—Jameson.
Specimens) .....+.. are: or none,
9. Gray copper ore, No. 373 ..] none none
10. Malachite, No, 238 ......... none none
11. Brown hematite iron ...... none | very small |Oxide of iron 80 in 100.—
12, Hexagonaliron glance, No} none | very small | Jameson,
OY “csepeadenacuseasuntomsne
13. Micaceous iron glance...,.. none none [ron 70 or 80 in 100.—
Jameson.
14. Variegated iron glance from} small or |considerable|Oxide of iron 94 in 100.—
« Elba, No. 879.......,.... none Jameson.
15. Sulphate ofiron ..,......... small or |considerable|Oxide of iron 25 in 100.—
none Jameson.
16. Tron pyrites (cube), (B.) ...|very small} large [47 iron, 53 sulphur in 100,
—Jameson.
17. Arseniferous antimony ...| small large {Antimony with arsenic 61 in
100.—Jameson.
18. Ferruginous scheelin, 338.} none none
19, Laminar titaneous iron .,.|/very small,jor none
20. Hemitrope crystal of oxide|very small,jor none
of tin, Was Olinda
21. Green oxide of uranium .,.| none none
22. Arsenical cobalt, (B.)......}| small considerable
Alp Aa LD 2 A small _|considerable}d iron, 95 carbon.—Thomson.
On the Changes which Bodies undergo in the Dark. By Rosert Hun.
At the last meeting of the British Association, great interest was excited on the an-
nouncement of a discovery by Moser, of Kénigsberg. This discovery was, that all
bodies were capable, in the dark, of impressing their forms upon other bodies brought
near them. Since that period three papers have been published in the Scientific Me-
moirs, which fully set forth the views entertained by Moser; and the subject has oc-
cupied the attention of Professor Draper of New York, of Mr. Prater and others in
England, and also of Fizeau in France. Both Professors Moser and Draper attribute
the phznomena, to the radiation, in darkness, of light which has been absorbed, and
which remains latent in all bodies; while Fizeau seeks to explain them by the exist-
ence of films of organic matter, which are easily disturbed, and in this view he is fol-
lowed by Sir David Brewster, by Professor Grove, and to a considerable extent by Mr.
Prater. For the purpose of testing these hypotheses, Mr. Hunt made the following
experiment, ‘Three flat bottles, manufactured for Mr. Hunt’s experiments on the in-
fluence of light on plants, were carefully prepared with three differently coloured fluids ;
an intense solution of carmine in ammonia, which admitted the permeation of the red
rays only ; a strong solution of the sulphate of chromium, through which but a por-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11
tion of the most refrangible red and the orange and yellow rays only passed ; and the
ammonia sulphate of copper, which absorbed all but the most refrangible portion of
the spectrum. Thus were obtained the means of isolating, with a tolerable degree of
purity, the calorific, the luminous, and the chemical spectra. Having several designs
cut out of white paper, these were placed on copper plates, and being covered with
the above bottles of fluids, placed in the sunshine, After remaining exposed for dif-
ferent periods, at different times, from half an hour to three hours, they were brought
from the light, and the plates placed in the mercurial vapour-box, and subjected to its
influence, In no instance did any impression appear on the plates which were placed
under the blue or yellow fluids, but in every case most decided impressions on those
plates which were subjected to the influence of the red rays. Indeed, in some cases the
impressions were beautifully visible without the use of mercurial vapour. It does
therefore appear, when we take into consideration, besides the above facts, also the
fact which has been admitted, that artificial heat at least accelerates this molecular
change, that an amount of evidence has been obtained in favour of the hypothesis of
calorific disturbance, superior to the supposed evidences in favour of the absorption
and radiation of any other solar emanation, Mr. Hunt caused the prismatic spec-
trum, which was kept stationary by means of a heliostat, to fall upon unprepared
copper-plates, and kept the plates under its influence for some time. On exposing
these plates to mercurial vapour, the space over which the luminous rays fell was, to
a certain extent, protected from the vapour, whilst the space which corresponded with
the maximum calorific rays was thickly covered with it. Mr. Hunt varied his expe-
riments with the spectrum, but a positive action was detected only in the thermic rays.
From another series of experiments made with washed and unwashed plates, Mr.
Hunt concluded that organic matter is not the cause of these images, but that the
effect is due either to some disturbance of the latent caloric, which produces a mole-
cular change, or to a thermo-electrical action, which it is difficult to understand. Had
the effect heen due, as M. Fizeau has stated, to slight layers of organic matter of a
volatile nature, it appears natural to suppose that these mysterious images would
have been found only on the very surfaces of the plates. Now this is far from being
the case. These images are often found to be impressed to a great depth into the
metal. Mr. Hunt in many cases removed several surfaces of copper, and yet had
been able to revive the images. He possessed copper plates rendered useless by the
impressions, which he has in vain endeavoured to remove.
——
On polishing the Specula of Telescopes. By Dr. GREENE.
Dr. Greene apologized for presuming to speak of his humble efforts after the splendid
achievements of the noble President of the Association in the same department, by
stating that few possessed the means, the perseverance or the courage to attempt any
thing even approaching the gigantic instruments already constructed, and now, on
even a larger scale, in process of construction, by Lord Rosse, whilst many an ama-
teur would be delighted to amuse himself at a small expense in that delightful path of
science,
Dr. Greene then described the construction and action of his machine, which he
illustrated on a small working model of only one foot in length, having then a mirror
of one-inch aperture on its polisher. The doctor dwelt upon the greater convenience
of using a machine turned by hand with a winch where the axes of the wheels are
horizontal, than where they are vertical, as in Lord Rosse’s, which is driven by a
steam-engine. But the principle of the machine so nearly resembles that far more
perfect machine of his lordship’s, that by some few alterations it may be made identical
with it in its mode of action. The general principle of the machine is this: a crank
sets in motion a bar to which the mirror is attached, and which pushes it backwards
and forwards over the polisher; while another crank, moving with a different velo-
city and through a different space, acting on the other bar in a direction at right
angles to the former bar, continually deflects it from a rectilineal into a curved path
over the surface of the polisher, which is constantly revolving slowly in one direc-
tion, whilst the mirror is made to revolve slowly in the opposite direction so as con-
tinually to change the portions of both that act upon each other, It is a remarkable
12 REPORT—1843.
fact, that since the first discovery of the reflecting telescope by Sir Isaac Newton,
every optician and amateur has blindly followed in the path laid down by that illus-
trious philosopher, of polishing the mirror by rubbing it over the surface of a fixed
polisher, the mirror being uppermost and the polisher under it. Lord Rosse was
the first who ever tried the reverse of this process ; he placed the mirror de/ow, and
moved the polisher over, its surface. To this simple change of position the doctor
mainly attributed the uniform success of its illustrious inventor. By this change all
the elements which enter into the one process are reversed in the other. In grinding
the mirror on a metallic tool with emery, the perfection of that part of the process is
to obtain a portion of a sphere, a figure known to every optician to be utterly un-
suited to form areflector, in consequence of the zones near the margin of the mirror
being too much curved in proportion to those nearer the centre, and that a parabola
is the required curve. Now asmall portion of a circle can be changed to a parabola
in two ways, either by increasing the curvature of the middle portion, or by diminish-
ing the curvature of the extremes. In the former case the focus of a mirror so altered
will be shortened, and in the latter case will be lengthened. It is found in polishing
with the polisher undermost that the focus is shortened, while in Lord Rosse’s me-
thod it is lengthened, which no doubt is the more simple and more certain mode of
proceeding.
On the regular Variations of the Direction and Intensity of the Earth's
Magnetic Force. By Professor Luoyp.
In this communication the author has given the principal results of the series of
observations which have been made at the Dublin Magnetical Observatory, as far as
they have been yet reduced. ‘These observations were commenced in the beginning
of the year 1839, and have been continued, almost without interruption, to the present
time. Since the beginning of the year 1840, they were taken every two hours, day
and night, in accordance with the general plan of observation laid down by the Royal
Society. The elements directly observed are the Declination and the two components
(horizontal and vertical) of the Intensity; and from the variations of the latter those
of the total Intensity and Inclination are readily deduced. The means of observing
the vertical component of the intensity having proved not altogether satisfactory, an-
other instrument has since been contrived by the author, by which the changes of the
inclination are given directly. Professor Lloyd would not occupy the time of the
Meeting with any account of the instruments or methods of observation, which are
now sufliciently known by all interested in the subject of terrestrial magnetism ; but
would proceed at once to the results obtained, so far as they related to the regular
changes of the magnetic elements, commencing with the diurnal changes. These
variations were projected in curves, which represented the course of the mean daily
changes for the entire year, for the summer and winter half-years, and for each
month separately.
Declination.—The mean daily curve of the changes of declination, for the entire
year, exhibits a small easterly movement of the north end of the magnet during the
morning hours, which reaches its maximum about 7 a.m. After that hour the north
end moves rapidly westward, and reaches its extreme westerly position at 1" 10™ p.m.
It then returns to the eastward, but less rapidly, the easterly deviation becoming a
maximum about 10 p.m. The mean daily range is 9:3 minutes,
During the summer months the morning maximum at 7 a.m. is more marked; the
evening maximum, on the contrary, disappears, there being a slow and regular move-
ment of the north end to the eastward from 7 p.m. until 7 a.m. In winter, on the
other hand, the evening maximum is well defined, and the morning maximum dis-
appears, there being a slow and regular westerly movement until 9 a.m., after which
the movement becomes more rapid in the same direction. The epoch of the extreme
westerly position of the magnet is nearly the same throughout the year. The greatest
daily range, in summer, is about 13°7 minutes; the least range, in winter, about 7-2
minutes.
Horizontal Intensity.—The mean daily course of the horizontal force, for the entire
year, has two maxima and two minima. The first minimum occurs between 1 a,m. and
oe
6 ene
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13
3 a.m., which is followed by a maximum about 5 a.M., or a little after. These fluc-
tuations are small. A second and principal minimum takes place at 10" 10™ a.m. ;
and a second or principal maximum about G p.m. The mean daily range is ‘0024 of
the whole intensity.
In the summer months the smaller maximum and minimum disappear, the inten-
sity decreasing continually throughout the night, but slowly, until 5 or 6 a.m., after
‘which the decrease becomes rapid. ‘There are, consequently, but one maximum
and one minimum in the mean daily curve, which correspond nearly in epoch with
the principal maximum and minimum of the curve for the entire year. In the winter
months, on the other hand, there are three maxima and three minima, the even-
ing maximum appearing to break into two. The epoch of the morning maximum
moves forward as the time approaches the winter solstice, appearing to depend upon
the hour of sunrise, which it precedes by a short interval. The epoch of the principal
minimum is nearly constant throughout the year. The daily range is greatest in the
month of July, when it is about -0045 of the whole intensity ; it is least in the month
of January, being then about -0008 of the whole.
Total Intensity and Inclination.—The total intensity appears to vary very little
throughout the day. It seems to be least about 9 a.m., and then to increase, attaining
a double maximum in the afternoon. The total range however being very sinall, the
variations of the two components of the intensity are dependent chiefly upon the
changes of the inclination.
The inclination is greatest between 10" and 10" 30™ a.m., and least about 6 p.m., the
epochs corresponding with those of the least and greatest values of the horizontal in-
tensity. The daily range is about 2 minutes in the early part of the year, and in-
creases to more than double of that amount in summer.
If we combine the changes of declination and inclination, the former being multi-
plied by the cosine of the absolute inclination, we obtain the whole movement of the
north end of the magnet in free space, or the curve formed by the intersection of the
magnetic axis with the sphere whose radius equals unity. The whole movement
during the first six hours of the day is inconsiderable.
It appears, on a review of these facts, that the diurnal changes in the direction of
the magnetic force are (as might be expected) connected with the diurnal movement
of the sun, and its times of rising and setting. The changes of the intensity appear to
od aa in addition by some other cause, or by the same cause operating less
rectly.
Professor Lloyd concluded his paper by an account of the annual changes in the
pean of the magnetic force at Dublin, as far as they have been hitherto deter-
mined.
On the Circumstances which affect the Energy of Artificial Magnets.
By the Rev. W. Scorgssy, D.D., F.R.S.
The object of this communication, Dr. Scoresby stated, was not to enter into the
extensive bearings of the subject announced, which the time of the Section would not
allow; but he might just state, in general terms, that the energy of permanent arti-
ficial magnets, of which alone he designed to speak, was affected by a considerable
variety of circumstances, all acting by laws peculiar to themselves, and thus occasion-
ing differences in the resultant energy whenever any of the circumstances might be
changed. These circumstances comprised quality of steel, denomination (such as cast
steel, shear steel, blister steel, &c.), temper or hardness, mass, and form. Hence, from
the varying influence of these several circumstances, it was impossible to give a gene-
ral answer to the inquiry, as to the best kind and temper of steel for permanent mag-
nets. In large magnets, indeed, consisting of considerable combinations of bars or
heavy masses, he, Dr. Scoresby, had sufficiently determined the fact, that best cast
steel, made as hard as possible, was the most effective; but for small magnets or thin
compass needles, shear steel, or cast steel tempered, became most effective. In a six-
inch bar which he exhibited, of 600 to 700 grains’ weight, hard cast steel was advan-
tageously employed ; but in thin plates, used singly or in pairs, such hardness required
to be reduced. But by extensive investigation of the effects of these several condi-
14 REPORT—1843.
tions, if any particular case were stated, he could easily determine the requisite quali-
ties. That the power of a magnet was essentially dependent on both quality and hard-
ness, he, Dr. Scoresby, proceeded to show by experiment with four small bars of similar
size, but of different qualities or tempers. One lifted only 600 grains, another about
1000, another the same, another 3200 grains. Tried by Dr. Scoresby’s mode of testing
described last year, he found the first to be bad in quality, the second inferior and too
soft, the third good in quality but not hard enough, the last excellent in quality and
hardness. In being in succession laid on the test bar, the first three lost all their
power, whilst the last retained still the power of lifting a key of 3200 grains’ weight.
Two anomalies in practical magnetism were then described. First, the experi-
mentally determined fact, that proportional magnets of similar steel and temper were
not energetic proportionally with their masses; in other words, that two magnets, one,
for instance, being double in all its dimensions of the other, would not exhibit powers
corresponding with their masses, or in proportion to the cubes of their lengths,—the
proportions, instead of being as 13: 23= 8, would perhaps be found to be as 1 to 5 or
6 only. Hence it would be inferred that magnets could not be advantageously en-
larged to an indefinite extent: at the same time, from the experiments already made,
he, Dr. Scoresby, would have no difficulty in constructing a magnet of a ton weight,
and, by means of his peculiar test (which he had exhibited to the Section), of render-
ing every bar effective. The other anomaly to which he referred was that arising out
of difference of form. In all his experiments on more than 1000 bars or plates, he
had always found that extreme hardness was the most effective in large or consider-
able combinations of straight bar magnets. His surprise was therefore great on trying
the same principle on two horse-shoe magnets of five and fifteen bars, to find that the
same Taw did not prevail. The magnets, until reduced in temper, were of low power.
To reduce them by a fixed and determinate rule, he, Dr. Scoresby, adopted a bath of
oil boiling at about 600°. He tried the effect of various temperatures, from 300° to
the boiling, and thence determined the ratio of improvement until he obtained the
best. The magnets annealed ultimately at an uniform temperature of 505°, now ex
hibited very superior powers, lifting from seven to nine times their own weight,
Description of a Galvanometer. By J. P. Jour.
It is a well-established principle in electro-dynamics, that if a small magnetic needle
be suspended in the centre of a coil or helix, and in the plane of its axis, the tangents
of its deflections will be nearly, but not exactly, proportional to the quantity of cur-
rent passing through the; coil. It has therefore been found necessary to construct
tables for turning the deflections of the needle into quantities of current. The ne-
cessity of forming these tables was first insisted upon by M. Becquerel; and in his
treatise on Electricity he has pointed out the laborious experimental processes employed
by himself and others in their construction. It is obvious that one table would suit
all instruments possessing the same relative proportions. The instrument which
Mr. Joule presented to the notice of the Association was designed as a type for the
construction of galvanometers. It consisted of a needle, three inches long, suspended
in the centre of a coil of six inches diameter. By a simple mechanical contrivance
the coil could be removed from the instrument, and replaced by others adapted for
the measurement of currents of different quantities and intensities; but in all cases
their dimensions were to be exactly similar, and their diameter exactly twice the
length of the needle, A most important part of the instrument was the needle, which
was constructed on Dr, Scoresby’s principle, and consisted of two straight and per-
fectly hard pieces of watch spring, placed at a distance from each other of about ths
of an inch, the agate cap being fixed between them. The importance of this form of
needle consisted in the facility it presented of constructing different needles perfectly
similar to one another with regard to the distribution of magnetism in them, which is
essential to the accuracy of the same table applied to different instruments,
Seen!
es
—_e--
_ ee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15
On a new Electrical Machine, and upon the Electricity of the Atmosphere.
By Joun Nott.
This paper treated at great length of electrical currents and of the atmospheric
electricity, by way of a preliminary to the consideration of terrestrial magnetism. The
author insisted on the close analogy between the voltaic pile and a magnet. The dif-
ference between voltaic and frictional electricity he conceives to be, that the former is
in the conducting wire, the Jatter on its surface, and therefore decomposed by what-
ever approaches it. Besides, the voltaic pile exhibits the two electricities and the cur-
rent in which they unite; whereas the ordinary frictional machines develope and
maintain but one electricity and no current. Among the novelties presented by the
paper, may be mentioned the description of what the author calls the rheo-electric
machine, in which both electricities are developed by friction. ‘ It consists of a cir-
cular plate of glass and another of resin, both supported upon a horizontal axis, and
set in motion by a winch handle; the rubber of the vitreous plate is connected by a
metal rod with the rubber of the resinous one; and the conductor of the latter plate
is also connected by a metal rod with that of the former, and thus a complete circuit
is formed, as in the voltaic pile. The distribution of the electricity of this instrument
is also analogous to that of the pile. For example, the electro-motive disturbance is
produced by the plates; the rubber of the vitreous plate is rendered negative, that of
the resinous one positive; and the conductors are also in opposite electric states, and
their remote extremities are therefore analogous to the poles of the pile. When the
conductors are connected by a conjunctive wire, it is natural to suppose that the ac-
cumulated electricities flow along its surface in opposite directions, for then an elec-
tric current is formed, which permanently deflects the magnetic needle, and the de-
flection is according to the direction of the current. The direction of motion of this
current may be varied at pleasure; for instance, in order to fix our ideas, let us sup-
pose the plates of this instrument and the axis of the conductors to be lying in parallel
planes, perpendicular to what is called the magnetic meridian, the conjunctive wire
connecting the conductors being bent at right angles, a portion of it will then be in
the meridian, and the metal rod connecting the rubbers will be parallel to this portion.
If now a magnetic needle be suspended above the conjunctive wire, and the resinous
plate, which we will suppose to be placed north of the vitreous one, be connected with
the earth, then a current of electricity passes from the resinous plate, and consequently
flows along the conjunctive wire from north to south; the needle is then permanently
deflected towards the west. If the needle be placed beneath the conjunctive wire,
the deflection is towards the east. When the vitreous plate is connected with the
earth the current flows from the vitreous plate, and the deflections are in the opposite
directions.” In the course of his experiments with this machine, the author found
that all the parts of it which were made of brass became, by electrization, highly mag-
netic, and retained their magnetism for some time. The character of the magnetism
thus produced will be understood by conceiving an orthographical projection of this
instrument to be drawn upon a horizontal plane: it will be a parallelogram, of which
the conjunctive wire will form one side, and the rod connecting the rubbers another :
then all the brass parts of one half of this parallelogram, cut off by a diagonal line,
will attract the north pole, and all of the other half the south pole. But if, immedi-
ately after electrization, either pole of the needle be forced into contact with any part
of the brass conjunctive wire, it will develope an opposite magnetism to its own,
and adhere to the wire as it would to a piece of iron. He also proved that water may
be decomposed by the rheo-electric machine as with the galvanic current. The two
electricities, as developed by this machine, appeared to him to be visibly different :
the resinous electricity was subject to remarkable changes of colour, according to the
state of the atmosphere and the nature of the exciting body. It also struck him that
electricity is radiated in a peculiar manner from magnetized bodies. Combining this
observation with a hypothesis respecting the electricity of the globe, viz. that the equa-
torial parts of the earth are in the resinous (in old language, negative) state of elec-
tricity, the poles vitreous (positive); while the atmosphere is, in its lower strata, vitreous,
and in the upper resinous; the author proceeded to exhibit the pheenomena of the
aurora borealis by direct experiment. ‘1 procured a globe of steel and magnetized
it. It may not be unnecessary to state how this was effected. I suspended the globe.
16 REPORT—1843.
upon an axis, and by a multiplying wheel and pulley set it in rapid rotation; while
rotating I made the magnetizing bars traverse from the equator of the globe to the
poles. I then tested it with a proof needle, and found it to be regularly and perfectly
magnetized. The next object was tc place this magnetic globe in similar electric
circumstances to those which I conceived the earth to be in. Regarding that region
of the atmosphere immediately over the torrid zone as the principal seat of atmo-
spheric electricity, I conceived that if I surrounded the globe with a ring that would
bear approximately the same proportion to the globe as this region of the atmosphere
does to the earth, and electrized them oppositely, that the action of the electricity of
the ring upon the air immediately enveloping the globe, would place the latter in
nearly similar electric circumstances to those of the earth; if, then, the aurora were an
electric phenomenon, that is, a discharge of free electricity, taking place from the pole
of the earth, rendering the vortex, which I supposed to be immediately over the pole,
luminous, from the great rarefaction of the air within it, and passing over our atmo-
sphere to the upper stratum of the equatorial region, that as I could increase the elec-
tric intensity of my artificial terrella as I pleased, an analogous effect would be pro-
duced. This result followed with the greatest precision, as I shall now describe. I in-
sulated the ring, and connected it with the resinous conductor of the rheo-electric
machine. JI also insulated the globe, and connected one of its poles with the vitreous
conductor, and placed it so that its equator was surrounded by the ring. These bodies
being electrized differently, and at a very short distance from one another, one would
expect that a discharge would have taken place between them; instead of this, they
at once reacted upon one another, so that the exterior of the ring being resinous, the
interior became vitreous; the equator of the globe resinous, and both its poles highly
vitreous ; and a truly beautiful and luminous discharge took place from the uncon-
nected pole, The state of the atmosphere has a remarkable effect upon the appear-
ance of this discharge. One evening that the atmosphere was very dense, it had the
appearance of a ring of light, the upper part of which was very brilliant, and the un-
der part, towards the globe, was comparatively dark, just as we see at the bottom of
ignited vapour; and indeed a vapour of some kind seemed to be ascending from the
globe; above the ring, all round the axis, were foliated diverging flames, one behind
the other. When the atmosphere is very dry it has merely the appearance of a bedu-
tiful electric brush. Ifthe globe be moved towards any point of the interior of the
ring, a discharge takes place in the line of shortest distance between them, and then
there is a partial intermission of the auroral light. This experiment seems to point
out the true cause of the aurora borealis.’”’ ‘The situation of the points of greatest
intensity (commonly called poles) in magnets, he conceived to be merely a result of
figure. Ona globular magnet the maximum intensity is, according to his experi-
ments, situate about 75° from the equatorial zone. He maintained that the earth is
a globular magnet, the maximum intensity of which is in lat. 75°, and that the mag-
netic poles of the earth have never yet been found. Terrestrial magnetism being con-
sidered as the effect of electric currents which move on the surface, will be affected
by the irregularities of that surface, and hence the anomalies of the earth’s magnetism.
The author denied the conclusiveness of the arguments used to show that the earth is
an oblate spheroid. He asserted that globular magnets, if freely suspended, would,
by their mutual attraction, rotate and revolve round each other; and, finally, that the
doctrine of gravitation must ultimately give way to that of universal magnetism.
On Determining the Index Error of a Circle by reflexion of the Wires of its
Telescope. By the Rey. Dr. Ropinson.
The observations made with an astronomical circle depend on an accurate deter-
mination of its index error, for which various methods have been adopted, all more
or less limited in applicability or deficient in accuracy. The method proposed in the
present notice appears so convenient and accurate, that Dr. R. thinks it may be use-
ful to lay before the Section a few details respecting its precision. Illuminate the lines
in the focus of the telescope behind, so as to leave the field dark; the rays forming an
image of them, emerge parallel from the object-glass, and if reflected from a mercury
trough back into the telescope, will form an image of the lines, visible along with them.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17
If the image of the declination line be made to coincide with it, the optic axis of the
telescope is obviously vertical, and the reading of the circle gives the nadir. When Dr,
R. found Kater’s collimator uncertain, he made an illuminating eye-piece, and essayed
this method with tolerable success in 1832, but as the power was but 25, he did not
pursue it further than was necessary to obtain a value of his latitude. About three
years since his attention was recalled to it by Mr. Henderson, who was using it with
great advantage; and he made the necessary alteration in the observing eye-piece
(power 250) to avoid the necessity of changing it when illuminating. He now finds this
method much superior to the pole star observation in expedition, notinferior in certainty,
and so easily practicable, that he in general’ determines the index correction at the
close of each night’s work. From the obvious fact that the angular movement of the
image is twice that of the telescope, the precision is double that ofa star, independent
of the fluttering of the latter. Dr. R. would also call the attention of astronomers to
the fact, that in determining the division corrections of a circle it must be remem-
bered that they are occasionally variable with the position of the instrument, and with
its temperature. It will, for instance, occasionally be found that the mean of six
microscopes will differ from that of two, or of twelve from four by unequal quantities,
when the readings of the index differ 180 degrees; and this throws a suspicion on the
usual mode of examining divisions. The difference is far too great to be attributed to
the error of observation, and appears to occur in every circle of which a detailed ex-
amination has been published. In the Armagh circle Dr. R. has found a few cases of
the effect of temperature. The most prominent is that of the four divisions used for
the nadir point, and it is remarkable that if this had not been attended to he would have
found for « Lyre and « Cygni parallaxes very nearly equal to those assigned them by
Dr. Brinkley, Bishop of Cloyne. These remarks seem to furnish an argument in favour
of the use of moderate-sized instruments, and the improvement of engine division.
On the Barometric Compensation of the Pendulum. By Dr. Rosinson.
At the Manchester Meeting of the Association Professor Bessel made a communi-
cation on the improvement of the astronomical clock, which, with other valuable mat-
ter, contained a proposal to compensate for the changes of rate produced by the vary-
ing density of the atmosphere. This appears in the Report of the Sectional Proceed-
ings, and also at much greater length in No. 465 of the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten.”
At the time Professor Stevelly remarked that I had not merely proposed but applied
this compensation twelve years ago *; and I should not have reverted to it, but that I
think my method possesses certain advantages over that proposed by the illustrious
astronomer of Kénigsberg, which entitle it to the preference in practice. It was long
believed to be demonstrated that the rate of a pendulum was influenced by the air’s
density only as far as it lessened the are of vibration and diminished its gravity by
buoyancy. The researches of Kater on the length of the second pendulum are all
Vitiated by this mistake, which was discovered by Bessel during a similar investigation,
in which he found, by using balls of different specific gravities, that the received
buoyancy correction is too small. As early as 1825, and without any knowledge of
what Bessel was doing, I had ascertained the same fact by comparing the rates of my
transit clock with the barometric indications; and Colonel Sabine gave the tinal proof
of it by swinging the pendulum in a vacuum apparatus in the year 1829. The amount
of it is far from inconsiderable; even with the mercurial pendulum of my transit
clock, which weighs 21 pounds, and presents a very small surface, it is 0°36 for an
inch change of the barometer. Now the remedy for this is obvious. If we attach a
barometer to the pendulum, its fall transfers a cylinder of mercury from point near
the axis of motion to a greater distance from it; the time of vibration may thus be
made to increase by the same amount that it decreases in consequence of the dimi-
nished density of the air. By placing the clock in vacuo, as Bessel proposes (and as
Sir James South has actually done for several years past), the effect of resistance can
be determined exactly, and the diameter of the tube selected, which will nearly cor-
rect it. This is not mere speculation, for I have verified it by trial. The diameter
to Astronomical Memoirs, vol. vy. Dependence of Clock’s rate on Barometer.
. Cc
18 i REPORT—1843.
which I selected for my tubes (0:1 inch) is not far from the truth. In the autumn
of last year a fall of 1:6 inch produced no appreciable change of arc. The tempera-
ture, however, was then nearly stationary ; but notwithstanding its changes during
the interval from that time till my leaving Armagh, the are has been between 1° 36!
and 1° 39’. Before the tubes were applied, the limits for the same period were 1° 42!
and 1°51!. The changes in Bessel’s own clock, though made by Kessel, a first-rate
artist, were still greater, being from 1° 25! to 1° 39’, an excess owing in part probably
to the great severity of the German winter. From what I have seen of the vacuum
apparatus used by Sabine or South, I cannot refrain from expressing a wish that the ex-
perinient were tried of mounting a transit clock permanently in vacuo: such a clock
would have many advantages, besides its exemption from changes of barometric
pressure.
Dr. Robinson communicated a Catalogue of Mean Places of 50 Telescopic Stars,
within two degrees North Polar distance, observed at Markrea Castle, county of Sligo,
by E. J. Cooper, Esq.
On Contour Maps. By Captain Larcom.
It is important that maps constructed by the government should exhibit the levels
of the country in the most intelligible manner; showing heights not merely on the
tops of hills, but round their sides, and through the valleys which traverse them. Such
a system is offered by these contours. ‘hey are a series of horizontal lines, at a
certain distance asunder, and at a certain height above a fixed datum. The datum
most commonly used is the level of the sea, doubtless from the shore line being the
limit of the land, and the point at which roads must cease, as well as from an impres-
sion that it is itself a level line; and therefore, as the first contour, the most appro-
priate and natural zero from which to reckon the others. The Section was aware
that it has been a point much discussed, whether the high water, the low water, or
the mean state of the tide, offers the most level line. This is a point which it would
be out of place to discuss here, but it may be stated that, in order to determine it, as
far as Ireland is concerned, a series of lines has been very accurately levelled across
the island in various directions, and permanent marks are left in all the towns, and on
numerous public buildings ; and at the end of each of these lines on the coast, tidal
observations have been made every five minutes during two complete lunations,
These observations, and the connecting lines of level, are now in process of reduction
—the degree of accuracy attained is such that a discrepancy of *2 of an inch is im-
mediately apparent—and from them we may expect many points of interest. The
steeper the natural slope of the ground is, the closer together the contours of course
will be, and the more oblique the road: where, on the contrary, the ground slopes
very gently, the contours are further asunder, and the road may be proportionally more
direct. By examining the maps of the Irish Survey, on which contours have been
drawn, it will be seen that they tell sad tales of the existing roads, every one of which
ascends and descends frequently, instead of keeping on a gradual slope for its whole
length, In order to exhibit these lines, it is proposed, instead of adding them to the
original copper-plate, which has a peculiar value as an official record of boundaries,
to make a copy of the plate by the electrotype, for the purpose of receiving them,
Contour maps were thought of early in the progress of the survey, but means were
wanting for their execution; at present, however, the outline survey being complete,
and the general map, or map of the surface, being in progress, a convenient opportu-
nity is afforded, which it is hoped will not be lost,
Account of the extraordinary Flux and Reflux of the Sea, July 5, 1843, at
Arbroath. By Aurx. Brown. Communicated by Sir Davin BrewsTER.
An extraordinary flux and reflux of the sea was observed at different places along
the east coast of Scotland on the afternoon and evening of Wednesday the 5th of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19
July, 1843. The following is a short account of the phenomenon as it was observed
in Arbroath Harbour.
The neap tides at Arbroath Harbour rise toa height generally varying from eight to
nine feet. On the 5th of July the moon was twenty-four hours past her first qua-
drature, and at two o'clock on the afternoon of that day she was in perigee; the neap
tide on that afternoon would therefore be about its maximum, that is, about nine feet ;
but at the time of high water at eight o’clock on the evening of the above-mentioned
day, the tide was at. times observed to rise to a height varying from nine and a half
to eleven feet; the flux and reflux was first observed about five o’clock in the after-
noon, and continued up till about the time of high water at eight o’clock. The ver-
tical depth of each wave was from one and a half to two feet, and the time of flux or
reflux ten minutes, with an intervening space of from five to ten minutes between the
rising and falling of each wave. Ihave been unable to ascertain whether the phzno-
menon commenced or terminated with a rising or falling wave, or to what horizontal
distance each wave retired or flowed up. The masters of vessels who were a little
distance out at sea state that they observed a stronger current than usual running at
the same time that the extraordinary flux and reflux was observed in the harbour.
The sea at the time (excepting the rising and falling) was perfectly smooth, there
being then very little wind. Near the time of high water at the two succeeding tides
the same phenomenon was observed, but not to the same extent as on Wednesday
evening. At seven o’clock on the same evening a violent thunder-storm came on and
lasted for the space of two hours, during which the fall of rain amounted to one inch
and a half, the barometer at 10 p.m. standing at 29-48 inches, and at 10 a.m. next
morning at 29°42 inches. The Harbour-master at this port, who has observed a
similar phenomenon before, gives it as his opinion that it is the effect of a storm in,
the Atlantic ocean, the wind blowing from north-west.
Remarks on Abnormal Tides. By Mr. Tuomas of Falmouth.
‘These remarks had been made in consequence of seeing, in a Report of the Asso-
ciation, the cause which had been assigned by Mr. Russell for the double tides ob-
served in the Frith of Forth, viz. the interference of the northern and southern tidal
waves. It appeared tothe writer that this cannot be the rationale of the phenomena,
since they occur in places where no such cause exists, as in Falmouth; besides, he
thinks that if this be the cause, it should be observed at Leith, where the meeting
waves differ two hours in time, and not merely high up in the Frith, He thinks a
difference in velocity at different parts of its rise, and the influence of strong winds,
sufficient to account for the phenomena.
_ On the Nature and Causes of the Diurnal Oscillations of the Barometer.
By G. Hutcuison.
__ In the first part of this paper, the author, after stating the leading features of the
jhzenomenon, argued that the three explanatory suggestions previously advanced re-
ative to its cause, viz. diurnal variations of temperature, diurnal variations in the
amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and diurnal variations in the force of the wind,
whatever influence they might separately and conjointly have in modifying the extent
of the atmospheric tides and the periods when their maxima and minima are attained,
were totally inadequate to account for the broad features of the phenomenon, as ex-
hibited in intertropical climates. The author then ascribed the phenomenon of di-
urnal atmospheric tides to the ever-varying degrees in which the rotatory and orbital
movements act, either in union with, or in opposition to each other in different lati-
tudes during the course of twenty-four hours, and the different seasons of the year.
_ During night, when the orbital and rotatory movements cooperate more or less in di-
rection, the excess of acquired velocity through space in the orbital direction above
the mean of 68,000 miles an hour, must communicate some degree of lateral pressure
_ tothe atmosphere in the direction of rotation, On the contrary, during day, when.
__ the orbital and rotatory movements act more or less in opposition to each other, the
t c2
20 REPORT—1843.
atmosphere must be subject to an equal amount of lateral pressure in the opposite
direction of rotation. But when the atmosphere was moving in the orbital direction,
with its mean velocity of 68,000 miles an hour, which occurred only at six o'clock
a.m, and p.m., no lateral pressure could thence result, for the rotatory and orbital
movements of the atmosphere, through space, were then equal to, and therefore nulli-
fied, or neutralized, its acquired velocity. The theory advanced is also supported by
the results obtained from laborious reductions of long-continued observations made in
different places, in temperate latitudes, by different philosophers. From these it ap-
pears, that even in temperate latitudes the atmospheric tides attain two maxima and
two minima annually, the former occwring during spring and autumn, the latter du-
ring summer and winter. This, on the supposition of the theory being true, is exactly
what ought to take place. In consequence of the rotatory and orbital movements
coinciding more directly during night, and being more directly opposed to each other
during day at the equinoxes than at other seasons, it is in accordance with the theory
under consideration, that the atmospheric tides should attain their maxima about these
periods of the year; and upon the same principle, in consequence of the greater di-
vergence of these forces from exact cooperation with or opposition to each other at the
summer and winter solstices than at other seasons, it is also in accordance with our
theory, that the atmospheric tides should attain their maxima about these periods of
the year.
Meteorological Register for 1842-43, from Diurnal Observations taken at
_ Beddgelert in the county of Carnarvon. By Joun PRICHARD.
Barometer. | sanetor, Wind. ore} Eien
g.d| gd }el¢ 2/2 #/2| |e 2
=e") 3 a BE $ lak $
caiaiy EER E | E e\s € gleis rf s EEE Hig le
Lad s & of a = a =] 2 =e! LBM ie | a
S-2) 8 /s/ 8 l2l2zl2lelelélslal|es2lelelais
1842.
June .....| 30-07 | 29:22] 69 | 52 |... |... 6| 2} 5| 2/141 1] 542] aol 3l...| 7
July .....| 30-15 |29-10| 64 | 52 | 4| 1|11| 4 9 827171 5|..| 9
August ..| 30°17| 99-41] 68 | 50| 1| 2] 3| 2 4 91 ..| 42{ 19} al) a
Sept. ...| 30°03 | 29-00] 62 | 48 |... |... 12 11 2.|...| 1017! 754] 19] 4] 8
October.| 30-27 | 28-32] 54 | 32] 9 4| 9}... |... | al 5] 45a] asl él | 6
Nov. ....| 3016 | 98-06 50} 36|...{ 1| 3} 3/1] 1) 1/10/ 11-96] 11/12]...| 7
Dec. _...| 30-20 | 28-85] 56 | 36 6| 4} 1| 1/18) 1| 7-65} 8|12|...] 11
1843.
January .| 30-20|28-30| 52 | 30 | 6|...| 7| 4|...|..| 14]...| 5:35] 8/10] 3 | 10
February| 29-80 |2855| 46 | 20 | 6| 2/ 3| 1) 1| 2] 211) 165137; 1/1] 9
March...| 30-08 98-801 56 | 27 | 1|...| 2} 1} 3| 1/14] 9| 3-42| 18] 3/...| 10
April ...| 29-75 |28-80| 52 | 32 | 2//4| 5| 11...|...| 17/ 1] 806| 9|10/3| 8
May .....| 29°93 | 29-10] 53 | 42 | 2 4| 1|'3| 611] 5| 369} 43} 4{..| 14
31/14/71 | 24|15| 17 (143 50| 71-36 [176 71| 8 [110
Beddgelert is situate on the south-west side of the Snowdonian range of mountains in the
county of Carnarvon, North Wales.
On the Correction to be applied for Moisture to the Barometric Formula.
By J. Avsoun, M.D.
If the atmosphere were of one uniform temperature throughout, destitute of moisture,
and the intensity of gravity were also constant, it is well known that the difference of
the altitudes of any two points in the atmosphere would be represented correctly by
t
the formula D = m x log m being a constant quantity, and p and p! being the
y "Ppa
Tae
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21
respective pressures at the upper and lower stations, as measured by the barometer, or
in any other way. ‘The conditions, however, which lead to this simple expression, are
in nature never fulfilled; for it will seldom happen that the temperature of either sta-
tion is 32°, and the atmosphere always includes a greater or less amount of aqueous
vapour. A correction for temperature has been long applied, by augmenting or di-
minishing the approximate height, or m x log - by the amount that a column of
air of this length would expand or contract, if its temperature were changed from
32° to p us 4 t being the temperature of the lower, and 4 that of the upper extremity
of the aérial column, by which the expression becomes
$*—82)
9
a
D=m x log Al (+ 553 3
Such is, I believe, a correct account of the present form of the barometric formula; at
least, when we neglect the correction for variation of gravity, which is, however, so
minute as to be in general safely negligible. The presence of moisture in the air
must obviously exercise some disturbing effect upon this formula; but though this has
been generally admitted by those who have turned their attention to the subject, I am
not aware that any attempt at estimating its exact amount has been as yet made; and
as the correction for moisture is frequently of considerable magnitude, and may, in
my opinion, be applied with as much accuracy as that for temperature, I have taken
the liberty of occupying for a few moments the time of the Section with an explana-
tion of the method which it has occurred to me to devise, and with which, from some
trials I have made of it, I feel every reason to be satisfied. Let p be the pressure,
and ¢ the temperature of the air at the lower station, z!’ the dew-point of the air, and
J" the force of the included vapour; and let p!, 6, 6” and F" represent the correspond-
ing quantities at the upper station. This being understood, a little consideration will
suffice to show that the presence of the aqueous vapour produces upon the formula a
twofold deranging effect. It augments the values of p and p! beyond what they would
be in dry air; and it produces an alteration in the length of the column of air be-
tween the two stations, additional to that which results from the difference between
its mean temperature and 32°, or the freezing point. The first of these is obviated,
or, in other words, the correction for it is made, by substituting for p and p’ in the
approximate formula, p—f" and p'—F", by which it becomes
D=™m x log ae
Having thus eliminated the effects of the tension of aqueous vapour upon the pressures,
we have next to estimate the conjoint influence of it and temperature in elongating
the pillar of air between the two stations. The theory of mixed gases and vapours
enables us to do this, provided we can assign proper mean values to the temperature,
the pressure, and the force of vapour of the aérial column in question. The mean
e and this must be very nearly its true value.
A t
temperature is usually taken as.
" "
a and
For the same reason the mean force of the vapour may be set down as
let us assume the mean value belonging to the pressure as VW (p—f") X (p!—p”.
Now volume », of dry air at 32°, under a pressure p, if raised to a temperature ¢”,
"
each ; and if saturated with vapour at this temperature, the tension
493 461 +2" p ie
of such vapour being f”, will become v X ey pay This is the volume of
becomes v x
the air when raised to ¢", and saturated at this temperature with vapour. And if this
volume of air have its temperature further raised, we shall say to ¢, then its bulk will
be represented by the expression
46142" p 4614+ ¢ _
461 +2 p
0X aos * p— fi * 461
0% —g93° X por
92 REPORT—1843.
Substituting then in this expression, instead of v, the value of the length of the column
"
f jp and for
of air between the stations supposed dry, and at 32°, viz. m x log P
p, t, and f", their proper mean values as already explained, the barometric formula
finally becomes
a p=f" 461 +3 (t + 4) V(p—I9 xX WFO
Dm X18 p= BX 498 7 PNY x GEIS PY
I may add here, that the correction for moisture is far from being insignificant in
its amount, as may be seen by the following example. Let us suppose that, when the
approximate height corrected for temperature amounts to 2700 feet (a height reached
by several of our Irish mountains), the mean value of the pressure to be used in the
final factor of the formula is 27-3, and of the force of vapour °3 of an inch, then
the elongation of the aérial column resulting from moisture is +35 = goth of 2700=
80 feet. It will, of course, have been observed, that the correction for aqueous va-
pour differs from that for temperature in the circumstance of being always positive ;
and this coincides perfectly with the observation I have had frequent occasion of
making, viz. that heights calculated by the formula in general use, are all appre-
eisiily leit than the truth. I may, in conclusion, observe, that in assuming—with
the view of calculating the expansion produced by moisture—that the pressure to be
employed is the geometric mean of the corrected pressures got by observation at the
two stations, I am quite aware that I am assigning to it but an approximate value.
An exact expression for the pressure to be employed admits of being investigated ; but
its introduction into the formula, while it would give this latter complexity of form,
and thus render it less suited for practical use, would conduct to results not appre-
ciably different from those given by the more simple method just explained.
Observations with the Thermometer made at Aden in Arabia.
By Corporal Witx1am Moyes.
The following summary of these observations was drawn up by the Marquis of
Northampton :—
Greatest height in the shade occurred at 12 and 2 on the Ist and 2nd, 100°.
Greatest height in the sun on the Ist, 120°,
Least in the shade at 2 a.m., 4th, 82°.
Least in the sun at 8 in the evening, 13th, 14th, 15th, 94°,
Greatest rise in an hour in the sun at 10 in the morning, 15th, from 94° to 109°.
Greatest morning variation in the sun, 6th and 7th, from 96° to 108°; and on the
27th and 28th, from 108° to 98°,
Greatest evening variation in the sun on the 7th and 8th, from 108° to 100°; and
on the 26th and 27th, from 104° to 96°,
Greatest morning variation in the shade, 11th and 12th, from 85° to 88°; and on
the 13th and 14th, from 86° to 89°.
Greatest variation in the shade at noon on the 6th and 7th, 98° to 90°.
Greatest variation in the shade in the evening, 24th and. 25th, 89° to 85°; 26th and
27th, 85° to 89°; 28th and 29th, 90° to 86°.
Greatest variation at noon in the sun, 6th and 7th, 106° to 121°,
On the quantity of Rain which falls in the south-west of Ireland, and in
Suffolk, with the wind at the several points of the Compass. By the Rev.
Tuomas Knox and the Rev. Henry Knox. Communicated by Professor
Lioyp.
The instrument employed in these observations was contrived by the Rev. Thomas
Knox, for the purpose of registering the amount of rain which falls at a given place,
with the wind in different points of the compass. - A description of its construction has
so
PhS
5
>
¥
b
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23
been given in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. The present communi-
cation contains the results of a series of observations made with two of these instru-
ments, one of which was erected at Toomavara, in the county of Tipperary, and the
other at Monk’s Eleigh, in Suffolk. The observations embrace a period of one year,
and are illustrated with diagrams, which represent the results obtained at the two
stations, for the whole year, for each quarter of the year, and for the individual months.
The following Table gives the results for the entire year, expressed in inches.
S. S.W. | W. | N.W. N. | N.E. E. S.E. | Total.
SS: ah Pee eee ee ee, ee ee eee ee
Toomavara ...|4°249 |12-696 | 8-150 | 2°640 |3°115 | 3-078 | 3-101 | 3:523 | 40-552
Monk’s Eleigh| 2:674 | 2°756|4:371 | 2:392 | 2°776 | 2:027 | 3:092 | 1-708 | 21°796
It appears from this Table, that while the total amount of rain which falls in Tip-
perary is nearly double of that which falls in Suffolk, there islikewise a wide difference
between the two stations as to the quantity which falls with different winds. In fact,
nearly one-third of the whole amount of rain falls at the Irish station during the pre-
valence of the south-westerly winds, while at the English station there is a much
Nearer approach to equality in the amount of rain borne by different winds, This
prevalence of rain with the south-westerly wind is distinctly marked in every season
of the year at the Irish station; while at the English one each season is characterized
by an excess of rain from a different point of the compass, producing a near approach
to uniformity in the results of the entire year. It is to be observed, that these results
are integral effects. A comparison of them with the times of continuance of the re-
spective winds, gives the raininess (if it may be so called) of the several winds,
Experiments to prove that all Bodies are in some degree Inelastic, and a pro-
posed Law for estimating the Deficiency. By E. Hopcxinson, £.R.S.
Mr. Hodgkinson said it was a principle generally acknowledged in the present day,
and employed by those who have written on the subjectof elasticity, that when bodies are
acted upon by forces tending toelongate or compress them in a small degree, the changes
produced are in proportion to those forces, and that equal extension and compression
are produced by equal forces. That this principle is true, so long as the change pro-
duced in bodigs is very small, isnot doubted; and as regards extensions, it is the basis
of the early investigations of James Bernouilli on the elastic curve; of Hooke, who
was its author (‘Theory of Springs’), Mariotte, Leibnitz (‘ De Resistentia Solidorum,’
1684). It was adopted in the profound inquiries of Euler on the strength of columns,
which were corroborated by Lagrange (Berlin Memoirs) ; and with respect both to
extensions and compressions, it forms the basis of the calculations on the strength and
elasticity of bodies in the principal theoretical and practical works on mechanics of the
present day, as the ‘ Mécanique’ of Poisson, and the works of Whewell, &c., the prac-
tical treatises of Navier, Poncelet, Tredgold, Barlow, Moseley, &c, He hoped, however,
to convince the Section that this principle does not operate alone in the resistance of
bodies subjected to tension, or to compression, or to both. He hoped, too, to show the
law which the element, not considered by writers, nor generally known to exist, is sub«
ject to. This elementisa defect of elasticity, or set, to which all bodies made to undergo
a change of form, however small, seem to be liable. The defect here mentioned was
known to exist only when the body had been strained with a considerable force, or
such as to be equal to one-third or upwards of the breaking weight. But the experi-
ments which he should adduce would show that the defect commences with the smallest
changes of form, and is increased according to the square of the extension, or com-
pression, or of the weight. Thus, if e represent the extension or compression which
the strained body had undergone, and ae the force which would have produced that
extension or compression if the body had been perfectly elastic, the real force neces-
sary to produce this change, e, will be less than the former by a quantity, b e”, repre-
senting the defect of elasticity. Hence the force required to produce a change, e, is
24 REPORT— 1843.
ae —be®, where a and D are constant quantities. He had found this law to obtain
when the change produced in the body arose from extension or compression alone ;
but when the change arose both from extension and compression, as in the flexure of
a rectangular body, the force of a fibre was less than that due to perfect elasticity, as
ax—ba* toa; or it was equal to az — ba", where « was the weight applied, and
a, b constant quantities as before.
In proof of these statements, Mr. Hodgkinson mentioned, that having remarked,
in his experiments made for the British Association on the subject of hot and cold-
blast iron, that the elasticity of bars, broken transversely, was injured much earlier
than was generally assumed, he paid particular attention to this circumstance in his
future experiments, and had bars so formed that he could separate the elasticity of
extension from that of compression; by these bars, which were very long and of small
depth, he perceived that J,th or jth of the breaking weight was sufficient to injure
the elasticity. He mentioned the matter to his friend Mr. F airbairn (who was asso-
ciated with him in the inquiry), soon after he had made the discovery, and Mr. Fair-
bairn’s subsequent experiments, made to determine the strength of rectangular bars
of iron, from all parts of the kingdom, were conducted in the same manner as Mr,
Hodgkinson’s had been ; the deflexion and quantity of set, or defect of elasticity, from
each weight being always observed. Mr. Fairbairn’s experiments were on bars cast
one inch square and five feet long, and were made with the utmost care; Mr. Hodg-
kinson has therefore adopted their results with respect to the “ set,” and taking means
both from Mr. Fairbairn’s results and his own, on the same sort of bars, he has sought
for the relation between the weights and the mean sets from those weights, these sets
being the deflexions or deviations from the original form of the bar after the weights
have been removed. To ascertain the relation above, Mr. Hodgkinson had curves de-
scribed from the results of the experiments, making the sets the abscissee and the
weights the ordinates, and the similarity in appearance of these curves to the common
parabola led him carefully to examine whether they were not in reality represented
by that curve. The examination was successful, the parabola was the curve, and the
mean results of the observed set, together with the calculated ones, from equal addi-
tions of weight, from 112 to 448 Ibs., derived from eighteen different kinds of iron,
and about forty experiments, are below :— :
Weights ...sceccsseserseeees eeceves «| 112 | 168 | 224 | 280} 3386 | 392} 448
Mean sets, or defects of elasticity| "012 | ‘026 | -044 | ‘068 | -098 | +137 | "192
Calculated sets from parabola ...| ‘012 | -026 | 046 | 075 | 104 } *142 | -186
The following table contains the mean results from forty-four kinds of cast iron and
from 90 to 100 experiments :—
Weights ....sccsosssessoesecs 56 | 112 | 168 | 224] 280) 336 | 392 | 448
Mean sets ©... ..sccenescscens 003 | -013 | -026 | -047 | -069 | :102 | +136 | ‘197
Computed sets....ssssseeeee ‘003 | 012 | 027 | :047 | 072 | *102 | -138 | -181
Mr. Hodgkinson made experiments on stone, timber and wrought iron, and ob-
served the quantity of set in all. These different materials, when the results from
them were constructed, all gave the form of the parabola, though less perfectly than
in cast iron, as the experiments on them were but few.
It appears from the above-stated experiments, and others that were made, that the
sets produced in bodies are as the squares of the weights applied. Hence there is no
weight, however small, that will not produce a set and permanent change in a body.
All bodies when bent have the arrangement of their particles altered to the centre;
and when bodies, as the axles of railway carriages, are alternately bent, first one way
and then the opposite, at every revolution, we may expect that a total change in the -
arrangement of their particles will ensue. It appears, too, from the results of these
experiments, that all calculations hitherto made on the strength and elasticity of bodies
have been only approximations. Mr. Hodgkinson stated that he laid the results of
tise Fe
Se ee eer
Ge
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25
this communication before a meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester a short time ago, soon after he had made the discovery which it contains.
In the prosecution of the experiments he had received every assistance which the
works of his friend Mr. Fairbairn could supply; and Mr. Robert Rawson had kindly
assisted him in the reduction and arrangement of the results of the experiments.
On the Principles of Construction adapted to the perfection of the Flute.
By Cornetius Warp.
The author exhibited a flute of a new construction, intended to combine the ut-
most theoretical completeness of tone and adaptability to musical ratios, with unusual
facilities for delicate and varied execution. He presented a memoir in illustration of
these peculiarities.
CHEMISTRY.
On the new metals, Lanthanium and Didymium, which are associated with
Cerium; and on Erbium and Terbium, new Metals associated with Yitria.
By Professor C. G. MosanpEer. Communicated by N. L. BEAMIsH,
F.R.S.
ALTHoven in consequence of the imperfect nature of the results which were obtained
from my researches on cerium and lanthanium I had no intention of making any
communication on the subject on the present occasion, yet after hearing the interest-
ing statement of Professor Scheerer, it appeared to me that it might be useful to
make known more generally some particulars which arose during my labours, and
principally because this advantage may result, that other chemists, after becoming
acquainted with what 1 am about to state, may possibly be spared the loss of valuable
time which might otherwise have been fruitlessly expended.
When, sixteen years since, | made some experiments upon cerium, several circum-
stances cccurred which led me to the supposition that oxide of cerium was accom-
panied by some other oxide, which, however, I did not succeed in separating, and
want of materials prevented me from then prosecuting the inquiry. A few years
since, having procured a quantity of cerite and cerine, I prepared from thence the
double salt of sulphate of the oxide of cerium with sulphate of potash, which salt was
washed with a solution of sulphate of potash, until the passing fluid gave no trace of
precipitate with caustic ammonia or carbonate of soda. I believed that in this man-
ner I could obtain a pure salt free from all foreign substances. The double salt was
afterwards decomposed in the moist way with carbonate of soda, and with the car-
bonate of protoxide of cerium thus obtained, all the preparations have been made
which will be now mentioned.
' After a long examination of various salts of protoxide of cerium, I did not succeed
in detecting a salt principally consisting of the supposed new oxide, the presence of
which, however, appeared more and more probable in the course of the experiments.
As it was known that cerium gives two oxides, I considered it probable that if hydrate
of protoxide of cerium mixed with water was exposed to the effect of chlorine, per-
oxide of cerium would be formed while the more electro-positive metallic oxide would
be dissolved in the fluid, and it was in this manner that I succeeded to my satisfac-
tion. When the chlorine was introduced into the fluid, the appearance of the hy-
drate of protoxide of cerium began soon to change, the volume diminished, and a
heavy, bright, yellow, or rather orange-yellow coloured powder fell to the bottom,
If, after the chlorine no longer appears to cause any change, the fluid is filtered, a co-
lourless solution, with the strong odour of hypochlorous acid, is obtained, from which,
with hydrate of potash in excess, a precipitate is deposited, which collected on a filter,
is white, or approaching violet. This precipitate begins soon, however, to grow yel-
low in contact with the air. If the precipitate be again mixed with water and chlo-
rine introduced, the greater part is dissolved, while a new portion of the yellow-co-
Joured oxide is formed, and remains undissolved. The filtered solution forms a pre-
26 - ° < TREPORT—1843. -
cipitate again with caustic potash, which is treated as before with chlorine, and this
is repeated five or six times, when, finally, hydrate of potash precipitates from the so-
lution an oxide which does not become in the least yellow by exposure to the air,
and which suspended in water, is completely dissolved by the introduction of chlorine
without leaving a trace of undissolved yellow oxide. It was to this oxide, not capa-
ble of being more oxidized either by the air or chlorine, that I gave the name of
oxide of Lanthanium, after the production of which, and a nearer acquaintance with
its properties, another and simpler method was employed to obtain it. The strong
basic qualities of the new oxide afforded an easy means of separating it from oxide
of cerium, by treating the red-brown oxide which is obtained when the so-called
nitrate of protoxide of cerium is heated with nitric acid diluted with 75 to 100 parts
of water. An acid thus diluted leaves the greater part of the red-brown oxide un-
dissolved, and from the solution thus obtained the oxide of lanthanium was derived
which was employed by me in the experiments that I made in the beginning of the
year 1839. Some of the results which I obtained unfortunately became known to
the public. When we find the oxide of a body hitherto unknown, nothing, generally
speaking, is easier than the determination of the qualities of the body, and I there-
fore expected to be able to give a complete account of my experiments in a very
short time, but on this point I was much deceived. That which, in the first place,
gives any value to chemical investigation, is the certainty that the object investigated
is pure, that is to say, free from foreign substances. I had not made much progress
in the details of my inquiry, when it appeared that what I at first considered to be pure
oxide of lanthanium, was, in point of fact, a mixture of the new oxide with a number
of other substances, so that in the course of the experiments I succeeded in sepa-
rating no less than seven different substances, one after the other. The first, to my
great surprise, was lime, in no considerable quantity ; and I have found that sulphate
of lime and sulphate of potash forms a double salt sparingly soluble. Afterwards the
following oxides were successively separated, and by the application of different
means, namely, oxide of iron in large quantities, of copper, tin, nickel, cerium, and
something resembling uranium, &c.; but even the oxide which remained after the
separation of all these substances, left me in nearly the same position which I held
at the commencement of the researches, so that, although at the end of the year
1839 I had already been fortunate enough to obtain oxide of lanthanium tolerably
pure, it was not until the beginning of the following year that I was able, with any
facility, to obtain a larger quantity of it; but, notwithstanding all my efforts, [ have
not yet succeeded in discovering any method of separating, with any degree of ana-
lytical accuracy, lanthanium from cerium, &c.
Oxide of lanthanium, as pure as I have hitherto been able to obtain it, possesses
the following properties :—It is of a light salmon colour, or nearly white, but not in
the least reddish or brown, and retains its appearance unchanged when heated either
in open or close vessels at a red or white heat: the slight colour seems to proceed
from a small remnant of some foreign substance. The oxide, although just previously
ignited to a white heat, soon changes its appearance in water, becomes snow-white,
more bulky, and after twenty-four hours in the ordinary temperature of the air, be-
comes changed to a hydrate easily suspended in water. With boiling water this
change takes place very quickly, and begins immediately; the newly heated oxide as
well as the hydrate immediately restores the blue colour to moist reddened litmus
paper. Oxide of lanthanium is easily dissolved by acids even much diluted. Salts,
when they are formed by the combination of the oxide of lanthanium with un-
coloured acids, are absolutely colourless, as well as the most concentrated solutions
of the same. Salts of lanthanium have a sweet, slightly astringent taste, and the
solution of them can be completely separated from oxide of lanthanium by the addi-
tion of sulphate of potash in sufficient quantity, because the double salt formed by
sulphate of oxide of lanthanium and sulphate of potash is quite insoluble in a solu-
tion saturated with sulphate of potash. The atomic weight of oxide of lanthanium,
as it has hitherto appeared in most instances, has oscillated about 680, a number
which, however, possesses no scientific value, when, as I have already remarked, an
absolutely pure oxide has not yet been obtained.
Of the salts produced, I will only briefly describe a few of the most characteristic.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27
Sulphate of oxide of lanthanium crystallizes in small six-sided prisms terminated by
six-sided pyramids, containing three atoms of water of crystallization. This salt has
the same property as sulphate of yttria, thorina, and other oxides of the same class,
namely, being much less soluble in warm than in cold water. At 73°4 Fahr. one
patt of anhydrous sulphate of oxide of lanthanium requires 423 parts of water to
be dissolved, but of boiling water one part of the same salt requires about 115 parts.
The crystals are very slowly dissolved, but the anhydrous salt is immediately dis-
solved. The anhydrous salt developes much heat when mixed with a little cold
water, and the salt then forms a crystalline crust, which afterwards is very slowly
dissolved. If powdered sulphate of oxide of lanthanium be thrown into water whose
temperature is 35°6 or 37°4 Fahr., and kept stirring, and with the precaution that
the liquid, which besides should be cooled from the outside, never attains a higher
temperature than 55°'4 Fahr., one part of sulphate of oxide of lanthanium may be
dissolved in less than six parts of water, and the solution preserved unchanged for
weeks, in closed vessels, and within the stated limits of temperature ; but if the liquid
be gradually heated, then before the temperature has reached 86° Fahr., a number
of crystalline groups composed of small needles radiating from a common centre
begin to deposit, and when once this crystallization has commenced it cannot be
checked, however rapidly we may cool the liquid. With regard to the number and
form of the deposited groups, the originally clear liquid is changed in a few minutes
toathin pap. If during the dissolution of the salt according to the manner stated,
a part of the liquid acquires a higher temperature through the heat that is developed
by the union of the salt with water, the crystallization of a part of the salt immedi-
ately begins, and after that has once begun the phenomenon continues even with so
low a decree of heat as 55°4 to 57°2 Fahr. less, until the solution only contains
¢yths of its weight of anhydrous salt. The salt which has thus been deposited con-
tains the same quantity of water as that which is formed during the evaporation, as
well under 55°4 Fahr. as with 212° Fahr. If sulphate of oxide of lanthanium be
kept at a white heat for an hour, it loses the half of its sulphuric acid, and the basic
salt which is produced is insoluble in water.
Nitrate of oxide of lanthanium is a salt easily soluble in water or alcohol, and from
an evaporated solution of the consistence of thin syrup, it crystallizes in large pris-
matic crystals, which rapidly deliquesce in damp air. If the solution be evaporated
with a heat of 86° Fahr. and above, an opake milk-white mass is obtained. If the
salt be cautiously heated so that all the water is expelled, then by care with a higher
degree of temperature, the anhydrous salt may be melted without decomposition,
and after cooling it resembles a colourless glass ; but with the least inattention re-
specting the temperature, a part of the nitric acid is expelled, and the melted mass
is a mixture of neutral and basic salt, which stiffens to a snow-white opake mass,
which a moment after solidification has the remarkable quality of falling asunder into
a voluminous white powder, with such violence, accompanied by a sort of slight
detonation, that parts of it are thrown about to the distance of several inches,
- Oxide of lanthanium has a particular tendency to form basic salts, and only such
are precipitated with caustic ammonia, let this be added in as great an excess as
may be, when also it occurs that the combination with some organic acids, such as
tartaric acid, is dissolved in an excess of ammonia. Several of the basic salts, for
example, basic nitrate of oxide of lanthanium, and basic chloride of lanthanium, are
marked by the quality that they cannot be washed upon a filter with water, which
runs through of a milky colour, until no part of the precipitate remains upon the
filter, and if the liquid be boiled with the precipitate which has been obtained, the
whole runs immediately through the filter. If the precipitate be allowed to remain
a few days wet upon the filter, it becomes changed into a neutral salt which is dis-
solved in the water, and carbonate of oxide of lanthanium, which remains upon the
filter.
~ With regard to cerium, my investigations are as imperfect in their results as those
upon lanthanium ; I will, however, make mention of some facts which may prove
interesting for the present.
The reddish-brown powder which remains after the extraction of oxide of lantha-
nium with dilute nitric acid, is a mixture of the oxide of cerium with oxide of lantha-
28 REPORT—1843.
nium, together with all the above-named accompanying substances. I have not been
able to find any good method of obtaining pure oxide of cerium; the salts of pro-
toxide of cerium are like those of oxide of lanthanium, perfectly colourless, and with
sulphate of potash the protoxide of cerium is precipitated completely from the solu-
tion. If hydrate of protoxide of cerium, precipitated by caustic potash, be collected
on a filter, it immediately begins to grow yellow, and after the oxidation has pro-
ceeded as much as possible in this manner in the air, there remains after drying,
opake light yellow lumps, which contain water; this being expelled by heat, leaves
so-called oxide of cerium, which has not the least trace of brown, but after an hour’s
heating at a white heat, has a slight tinge of red. If the oxide of cerium formed in
the manner stated has the slightest tinge of brown, or becomes dark after drying or
heating, it proceeds from foreign substances. ‘This yellow oxide, however, always
contains protoxide of cerium, and I have not succeeded in obtaining oxide of cerium
free from protoxide. The bright yellow oxide which is formed when hydrate of pro-
toxide of cerium, either alone or mixed with hydrate of oxide of lanthanium, &c., is
exposed to the action of chlorine, contains not only chlorine but even protoxide of
cerium. If nitrate of protoxide of cerium be heated, a light yellow powder is ob-
tained, from which much salt of protoxide of cerium may be extracted with nitric
acid, and if this solution be again evaporated, and the dried mass heated, salt of prot-
oxide of cerium is again obtained, and this continues even after the operation has
been five times repeated. What I call oxide of cerium is, therefore, really a combi-
nation of oxide of cerium with protoxide. The ignited oxide of cerium is scarcely
affected by boiling concentrated muriatic acid, still less by other weaker acids; the
hydrate, on the other hand, is easily dissolved in muriatic acid, with the development
of chlorine, but even after a long boiling the solution retains a yellow colour.
Scarcely a trace of the hydrate of oxide of cerium is dissolved by weaker diluted
acids, but it assumes a darker yellow colour, and combines with a portion of the acid
employed. In the solutions of carbonated alkalies, particularly carbonate of ammo-
nia, the hydrate of oxide of cerium is dissolved in large quantities, and the solution
assumes a bright yellow colour. Peroxide of cerium in solutions which are heated
to boiling, is immediately reduced by oxalic acid to protoxide of cerium, while car-
bonic acid is developed. By means of warm concentrated sulphuric acid, the ignited
oxide of cerium is immediately rendered soluble, in consequence of combining with
the acid. Neutral sulphate of oxide of cerium is, when dry, a beautiful yellow,
becomes by heating orange yellow, with a higher degree of temperature almost cin-
nabar red, but after cooling the bright yellow colour returns. The salt is soluble
in a small quantity of water, but if the solution be heated to boiling, the greater
part of the salt is deposited in the form of a tough, soft, semi-transparent, and very
viscid mass. If the concentrated solution, which is red yellow, be diluted, it becomes
lighter yellow, but begins immediately to grow turbid, depositing a sulphur-yellow
powder, which is a basic salt requiring 2500 parts of water for its solution. With
sulphate of potash, sulphate of oxide of cerium gives a beautiful yellow salt, which is
altogether insoluble in a saturated solution of sulphate of potash, but the double salt
cannot be dissolved in water without being decomposed and a basic salt precipi-
tated. Notwithstanding the oxide of cerium is nearly insoluble in diluted acids, it
must be remembered that intimately mixed with other easily soluble oxides, it readily
passes into solution : sulphuret of cerium is of a dark brown-red colour.
The oxide of Janthanium which was first obtained by me was of a brown colour,
but after having been heated to a white heat, became a dirty white; by heating in
hydrogen it also lost its brown colour, although a scarcely perceptible loss of weight
arose therefrom: by heating in the air, the brown colour returned.
This circumstance, together with several other phenomena which presented them-
selves during the examination of the properties of oxide of lanthanium, caused me
to presume that the oxide of lanthanium which had been obtained was still accom-
panied by some unknown oxides, and it was in the beginning of 1840 that I suc-
ceeded in freeing lanthanium from that very substance which caused the brown
colour. To the radical of this new oxide I gave the name of Didymium (from the
Greek word d/dvj0s, whose plural d/dv~or signifies twins), because it was discovered
in conjunction with oxide of lanthanium. It is the oxide of didymium that gives to
&
:
:
3
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99
the salts of lanthanium and cerium the amethyst colour which is attributed to these
salts ; also the brown colour which the oxides of the same metals assume when heated
to a red heat in contact with the air. Notwithstanding all possible care, I have not
yet succeeded in obtaining the oxide in a state of purity ; and I have only arrived so
far as to ascertain that a constant compound with sulphuric acid can be produced
by different means, but from the quantity of water of crystallization, and other cir-
cumstances, the conclusion may be drawn that the salt is really a double salt, although
I cannot at present say whether the other accompanying oxide is oxide of lanthanium
or some other. That which I now thus briefly describe as oxide of didymium is the
basis in combination with sulphuric acid in that salt whose properties I will now
communicate, as well as a method of obtaining it. The sulphate of oxide of didy-
mium, prepared in different ways, is much more soluble in water than the sulphate
of oxide of lanthanium. This circumstance induced me to try whether by treating
the mixture of the anhydrous salts in great excess with water in small proportions,
solutions could not be obtained, which, in the order they had been procured, should
be richer in salts, and particularly in sulphate of oxide of didymium, while, on the
contrary, what remained undissolved, should be nearly pure sulphate of oxide of
lanthanium ; but after having examined five successive saturated solutions, obtained
from the same mixture of anhydrous salts, it was found that one part of anhydrous
salt had in the first experiment been dissolved in 7°64 parts of water; in the 2nd
experiment in 8°48 parts ; in the 3rd experiment in 7:8 parts; in the 4th experiment
in 5 parts, and in the 6th experiment in 7:44 parts of water. These remarkable pro-
portions of salt dissolved I thus explained: during the dissimilar degrees of tempera-
ture which accidentally arise under the development of heat which takes place when,
by the addition of water to the anhydrous salt, this takes up water of crystallization,
salts containing unlike portions of water of crystallization, and of unlike solubility had
been formed, and it was for the purpose of ascertaining the correctness of this suppo-
sition that I afterwards prepared the solution of the salts in the manner which I
have already stated in describing the sulphate of oxide of lanthanium, the dissimilar
solubility of which salt with different degrees of heat was in this manner discovered.
If therefore the mixed salts, with a temperature which should not exceed 48°2 Fahr.,
be dissolved in 6 parts cf water, and the solution thus obtained afterwards heated to
104° Fahr., a quantity of light amethyst-coloured salt of lanthanium is deposited,
which, by a repetition of the same treatment, after ten to fifteen operations, becomes
colourless and nearly pure. The amethyst-coloured solution separated from the
salt of lanthanium is evaporated to dryness, and the salt is freed from water; it is
again dissolved in the before-mentioned manner, but the solution is now heated to
122° Fahr., and filtered after no more salt is deposited. The solution, now red, is
diluted with an equal weight of water, acidulated with a portion of sulphuric acid,
and is evaporated in a warm place. Several kinds of crystals are now formed, many
of which assume a larger size, and fall to the bottom; when only a sixth part of the
liquid, which is generally yellow, remains, it is poured off, the salt crust which lies at
the bottom is separated, and the collection of crystals is shaken in boiling water,
which is suddenly poured off, when a number of smaller prismatic crystals accom-
pany it. The remaining large red crystals are again dissolved in water, the solution
is acidulated with sulphuric acid, evaporated in the before-named manner, and the
large red crystals taken separately, when it will be found on a nearer examination
that they form a mixture of two kinds: the one, which appear in the form of long,
narrow rhomboidal prisms, is taken out, and the remaining large red crystals with
many planes, which, according to Wallmark’s measurement, appear to belong to the
triklinometric system, form the salt which I call sulphate of oxide of didymium.
From a solution of a salt of didymium hydrate of oxide of didymium is precipitated
with hydrate of potash in excess, and collected on a filter; it has a bluish-violet
colour, absorbs during washing carbonic acid from the air, and the residuum, for the
Most part formed of carbonate of oxide of didymium, is, after drying, light reddish
violet. If this be heated to redness, the water passes off and carbonic acid is easily
expelled. The oxide produced in this manner is obtained in the form of small
lumps, dark brown on the surface, sometimes light brown in the fracture, of a resi-
‘nous lustre, sometimes nearly black, with the lustre and appearance of dark orthite,
30 ‘ REPORT—1843.
at the same time particles are obtained of all the most dissimilar colours, so that
they represent together a pattern map of all the most dissimilar kinds which are
obtained of the mineral orthite, from the light red brown to the nearly black. The
powder becomes light brown, If this oxide be heated to a white heat, it assumes a
dirty white colour approaching gray green. Oxide of didymium is a weaker basis
than oxide of lanthanium; it has no alkaline reaction, and appears not to absorb
water after having been heated. It is, however, tolerably easily dissolved even in
diluted acids, and the brown oxide with a development of gas. It is insoluble in
carbonate of ammonia; its salts are amethyst-red, as well as the solutions of the
salt, which forms no precipitate with hydrosulphuret of ammonia, unless a large
quantity be added, or the liquid be heated, when the sulphuretted hydrogen is
developed, and a basic salt precipitated having a slight tint of red. If the oxide be
dissolved in phosphoric salt by means of the blowpipe, the bead becomes amethyst-
coloured with great tendency to violet, exactly as with a trace of titanic acid after
reduction.
Oxide of didymium heated upon platina foil with carbonate of soda, melts to a
gray-white mass. With regard to the salts of didymium, I shall briefly describe
those which are analogous to the before-mentioned salts of lanthanium and cerium,
and must at the same time mention that the basic salt of didymium which is preci-
pitated by caustic ammonia, can be washed without passing through the filter.
The mode in which sulphate of oxide of didymium is obtained, as well as its ap-
pearance, has been already stated ; this salt is readily soluble in water at the ordi-
nary temperature of the air, although the crystals are very slowly dissolved. ‘The
anhydrous salt is at once dissolved, if before the solution it is not suffered to com-
bine with water of crystallization. Should this occur in such a manner that the an-
hydrous salt is covered over (dfver gjutes) with a little water, the mass becomes
heated, and a hard salt crust is formed, which must be reduced to powder before it
can be quickly dissolved. At the ordinary temperature of the air, one part of an-
hydrous sulphate of oxide of didymium requires five parts of water for solution.
This solution begins at 127°4 Fahr. to deposit crystals, the number of which in-
creases in the same degree as the temperature increases, so that the boiled solution
contains only one part of anhydrous salt to 50°5 parts of water; at a low red heat
an inconsiderable quantity of sulphuric acid goes off, but after an hour’s exposure to
a white heat, the salt loses two-thirds of its acid. With sulphate of potash, sulphate
of oxide of didymium gives an amethyst-coloured double salt, which is completely
insoluble in a saturated solution of sulphate of potash.
Nitrate of oxide of didymium is very soluble in water, crystallizes with difficulty ;
the solution evaporated to thin syrup, has a beautiful red colour, which seen in a
certain direction approaches blue. If the salt be evaporated to dryness in a warm
place, and heated to melting, which cannot be effected without a great portion of
the nitric acid being decomposed, a red fluid is obtained, which, cooled and solidified,
does not fall to powder with violence, like the corresponding salt of lanthanium, but
retains its form.
I must not omit to mention on this occasion, that amongst the many other bodies
which in the course of these researches 1 was obliged to examine, yttria also pre-
sented itself, and I have found that this earth, free from foreign substances, is per=
fectly colourless, and gives perfectly colcurless salts: that the amethyst colour which
the salts generally present comes from didymium, I will not, however, maintain.
Addendum, July 1843.—On Yttria, Terbium and Erbium.
I published last summer a short notice of yttria, concerning which earth the follow-
ing facts subsequently discovered merit attention, When I stated on the former
occasion that pure yttria, as well as the salts of that base with a colourless acid, are
colourless, my experiments had only gene so far as to show that all the yttria which
I could procure for examination might with ease be separated into two portions, the
one a stronger and colourless base, the other a weaker, which, in proportion as it
was free from yttria, acquired a more intense yellow colour on being submitted to
heat, and with acids gave salts of a reddish colour. I continued my examination
$
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 31
during the following autumn and winter, and thereby was not only enabled to con-
firm the correctness of my former observations, but made the unexpected discovery
that, as was the case with oxide of cerium, what chemists have hitherto considered
as yttria, does not consist of one oxide only, but is fer the most part to be regarded
as a mixture of at least three, of which two appear to be new and hitherto unknown,
all possessing the greater number of their chemical characters in common, for which
reason chemists have so readily overlooked their real differences.
The characters which are peculiar to these oxides, and distinguish them from all
others, are,—1st, that although powerful salt bases, all more so than glucina, they
are insoluble in water and in caustic alkalies, but on the other hand soluble, even
after having been exposed to a strong heat, in a boiling solution of carbonate of
soda, although after a few days the greater part separates from its solution in the
form of a double salt ; 2ndly, that combined with carbonic acid, they are largely
soluble in a cold solution of carbonate of ammonia, and that when such solution is
saturated with them, a double salt of carbonate of ammonia and the above carbo-
nates immediately begins to separate, and that in such quantity, that after a few hours
very little oxide remains in solution; which explains the observations of several
chemists, that, as they express themselves, yttria sometimes dissolves freely, somes
times scarcely at all, in carbonate of ammonia: further, that the salts of these oxides
have a sweet taste, and that the sulphates dissolve with more difficulty in warm than
in cold water, without its following that they form double salts with sulphate of potash,
which are insoluble in a saturated solution of the latter.
If the name of yttria be reserved for the strongest of these bases, and the next in
order receives the name of oxide of terbium, while the weakest be called oxide of
erbium, we find the following characteristic differences distinguishing the three sub-
stances:—The nitrate of yttria is extremely deliquescent, so much so that if a small
portion of a solution of that salt be left for weeks in a warm place, the salt produced
will not be free from humidity. The solution of nitrate of oxide of terbium, which
is of a pale reddish colour, soon evaporates, leaving a radiated crystalline mass, which
does not change in air unless it be very damp. The crystals of sulphate of yttria are
colourless, and remain clear and transparent for weeks in air at a temperature vary-
ing from 86° Fahr. to 158° Fahr., while a solution of sulphate of oxide of terbium
yields by evaporation, at a low temperature, a salt which immediately effloresces to a
white powder. Oxide of terbium, the salts of which are of a reddish colour, appears,
when pure, to be devoid of colour, like yttria. Oxide of erbium differs from the two
former in its property of becoming of a dark orange yellow colour when heated in
contact with air, which colour it is again deprived of, with a trifling loss of weight,
_ by heating it in hydrogen gas; and it is to the presence of oxide of erbium that
yttria owes its yellow colour, when prepared as hitherto directed: and it is more-
over probable, that in all those cases where a colourless yttria has been supposed to
have been obtained, the presumed yttria has consisted for the most part of glucina,
at least before it was known how to separate the last earth completely.
_ The sulphate and nitrate of the oxide of erbium are devoid of colour, although
the solution of the oxide in acids is sometimes yellow, and the sulphate does not
effloresce.
~ These and a number of other less remarkable differences between the three oxides,
appear to me to place beyond a doubt that what we have hitherto obtained and
described as yttria, is neither more nor less than a mixture of these three bases, at
least such is the case with yttria prepared from gadolinite, cerine, cerite, and orthite,
but as I have not yet had the good fortune to discover any tolerably easy or certain
mode of obtaining the one or the other oxide chemically pure, I shall confine myself
for the present to this short statement of facts.
- I proceed to make known two easy methods by which chemists may prove the
correctness of the above statements. If caustic ammonia in small quantities at a time
be added to a solution of ordinary yttria in muriatic acid, and the precipitate follow-
ing each addition be washed and dried apart, we obtain basic salts, of which the last
precipitated are colourless, and contain yttria only. Going backwards in reyerse
order from these last, we find the precipitates becoming nearly transparent, reddish,
and containing more and more oxide of terbium, while the furst precipitates contain
32 REPORT—1843.
the greatest proportion of oxide of erbium, mixed with oxide of terbium and yttria.
If a solution of ordinary yttria in nitric acid be treated in the same manner, and the
several precipitates be heated separately, the first precipitate will give a dark yellow
oxide, the colour of each succeeding one will be paler and paler, till at last a white
oxide will be obtained, consisting chiefly of yttria, with a trifling quantity of oxide of
terbium. In making these experiments it is of importance that the yttria be free
from iron, uranium, &c., a matter of considerable difficulty. It is therefore better
to commence precipitating with a weak solution of hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and
when the precipitate has no longer a shade of bluish green, then to apply the caustic
ammonia as described. A better method in general is to add a portion of free acid
to a solution of yttria, and then to drop in a solution of binoxalate of potash, con-
tinually stirring till the precipitate no longer redissolves. In a couple of hours a
precipitate will form, which is to be separated, and the remaining solution treated
as above described, and that as long as any precipitate is formed. If the remaining
fluid be then neutralized with an alkali, a small quantity of nearly pure oxalate of
ttria is obtained. Of the precipitates the first obtained are most crystalline, and
fall quickly, the last more pulverulent, sinking slowly. The former contain most
oxide of erbium, mixed with oxide of terbium and yttria ; the next contain less oxide
of erbium, more of terbium and yttria ; while the latter contain more and more yttria,
mixed with oxide of terbium. The first precipitates are always reddish, and the last
colourless. Ifa mixture of the oxalates of these bases be treated with a very diluted
acid, we obtain first a salt containing mostly yttria, then one richer in oxide of
terbium, and the remainder contains principally oxide of erbium. I have even once
succeeded in obtaining a double salt of sulphate of potash and sulphate of oxide of
erbium (which is with difficulty dissolved in a saturated solution of sulphate of potash),
by treating a somewhat concentrated solution of the nitrates of oxide of terbium and
erbium with an excess of sulphate of potash.
That much time and labour have been employed in arriving even at the results
which I have hitherto obtained, will be evident from the little I have been enabled
to make known, particularly when it is considered that one or two grains of yttria
have often been divided into nearly a hundred precipitates, which have been indi-
vidually examined ; but I live in hopes that the knowledge already obtained will
soon enable me to publish a more complete account of my investigations.
On the Heat of Combination. By Dr. ANDREws.
The object of this communication was to announce the following general principle,
as a consequence of previous researches of the authur on the same subject, and to
give a general account of some recent experiments which appear to him to establish
its accuracy. The law may be thus stated: “ When one base displaces another from
any of its neutral combinations, the heat evolved or abstracted is always the same
when the base is the same; or, in other words, the change of temperature which oc-
curs during the substitution of one base for another in any neutral compound, de-
pends wholly on the bases, and is in no respect influenced by the acid element of the
combination.” To test the accuracy of this principle by direct experiment, equivalent
solutions of various neutral salts were decomposed by the addition of a dilute solu-
tion of the hydrate of potash. When the strength of the solutions and their tem-
peratures were properly adjusted, the same variation of temperature always occurred
during the decomposition of salts of the same base. If the base (in the state of a
hydrate) developed, when alone, less heat than the hydrate of potash in combining
with the acids, an elevation of temperature occurred during the decomposition of its
salts by the latter ; if the reverse were the case, the decomposition of the salts was
attended by a diminution of temperature. Thus the decomposition of equivalent so-
lutions of the salts of the oxide of copper was attended by the evolution of the same
amount of heat, as was also the decomposition of the salts of the oxide of zinc ; but.
the heat extracted by the former was about twice as great as that extracted by the
latter, because the oxide of copper produces less heat in combining with the acids
than the oxide of zinc. The salts of lime furnish an example of an absorption of
heat when their solutions are decomposed by potash,—a circumstance easily explained -
’ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33
by the fact which has been before established by the author, that the hydrate of lime
when combining with the acids developes more heat than the hydrate of potash. But,
_ in accordance with the principle before stated, the diminution of temperature is the
_ same with equivalents of all the salts of lime. In an inquiry of this kind many pre-
cautions are requisite, in order to obtain accurate results. Among the most important
may be mentioned, the exact neutrality of the salt to be decomposed, a perfect equa-
lity of temperature in the solutions before mixture, and the precipitation of the oxide
in the state ofa pure hydrate, and not of a subsalt.
‘
if
x
On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity, and the Mechanical Value
} of Heat. By J. P. Jourz.
_ Although it had been long known that fine platinum wire can be ignited by mag-
_ neto-electricity, it still remained a matter of doubt whether heat was evolved by the
: coils in which the magneto-electricity was generated: and it seemed indeed not un-
reasonable to suppose that co/d was produced there, in order to make up for the heat
_ evolved by the other parts of the circuit. The author had endeavoured therefore to
_ clear up this uncertainty by experiment. His apparatus consisted of a small com-
pound electro-magnet, immersed in water, revolving between the poles of a powerful
Stationary magnet. The magneto-electricity developed in the coils of the revolving
electro-magnet was measured by an accurate galvanometer; and the temperature of
the water was taken before and after each experiment by a very delicate thermo-
meter. The influence of the temperature of the surrounding atmospheric air was
guarded against by covering the revolving tube with flannel, &c., and by the adoption
of a system of interpolation. By an extensive series of experiments with the above
apparatus the author succeeded in proving that heat is evolved by the coils of the
_ Mmagneto-electrical machine, as well as by any other part of the circuit, in proportion
_ to the resistance to conduction of the wire and the square of the current ; the mag-
_ neto-, having, under comparable circumstances, the same calorific power as the voltaic
electricity. Prof. Jacobi, of St. Petersburgh, had shown that the motion of an elec-
_ tro-magnetic engine generates magneto-electricity in opposition to the voltaic current
of the battery. The author had observed the same phenomenon on arranging his
_ apparatus as an electro-magnetic engine; but had found that no additional heat was
_ evolved on account of the conflict of forces in the coil of the revolving electro-mag-
_ net, and that the heat evolved by the coil remained, as before, proportional to the
_ square of the current. Again, by turning the machine contrary to the direction of
_ the attractive forces, so as to increase the intensity of the voltaic current by the as-
sistance of the magneto-electricity, he found that the evolution of heat was still pro-
portional to the square of the current. The author discovered, therefore, that the
__ heat evolved by the veltaic current is invariably proportional to the square of the
_ current, however the intensity of the current may be varied by magnetic induction.
_ But Dr. Faraday had shown that the chemical effects of the current are simply as its
_ quantity. Therefore he concluded that in the electro-magnetic engine, a part of the
_ heat due to the chemical actions of the battery is lost by the circuit, and converted
~ into mechanical power ; and that when the electro-magnetic engine is turned contrary
_ to the direction of the attractive forces, a greater quantity of heat is evolved by the
_ cireuit than is due to the chemical reactions of the battery, the overplus quantity
__ being produced by the conversion of the mechanical force exerted in turning the ma-
chine. By a dynamometrical apparatus attached to his machine, the author has ascer-
tained that, in all the above cases, a quantity of heat, capable of increasing the tem-
_ perature of a pound of water by one degree of Fahrenheit’s scale, is equal to a me-
hanical force capable of raising a weight of about 838 pounds to the height of one
Oot.
a ie
é ‘On the Decomposition of Carbonic Acid Gas, and the Alkaline Carbonates,
by the light of the Sun. By Prof. Draper, New York.
_ The decomposition of carbonic acid gas by the leaves of plants under the influence
of the light of the sun, is one of the most remarkable facts in chemistry. Dr. Dau-
3 in a very able paper in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1836, came
43. D
34 REPORT—1843.
to the conclusion, that the decomposition in question was due to the ray of light, a
result obtained by the agency of coloured glasses, but which does not appear to have
been accepted by later authors, who have attributed it to the chemical rays. There
is but one way by which the question can be finally settled, and that is by conducting
the experiment in the prismatic spectrum itself. When we consider the feebleness
of effect which takes place, by reason of the dispersion of the incident beam through
the action of the prism, and the great loss of light through reflexion from its surface,
it would appear a difficult operation to effect the determination in this way. Encou-
raged, however, by the purity of the skies in America, I made the trial, and met with
complete success. A series of tubes, halfan inch in diameter and six inches long, were
arranged so that the coloured spaces uf the spectrum fellon them. In these tubes,
water, impregnated with carbonic acid gas, and containing a few green leaves (Poa
annua), was placed. It was expected that if the decomposition be due to the radiant
heat, the tube occupying the red space, or even the one in the extra-spectral red space,
would, at the close of the experiment, contain most gas. If it were the ‘‘ chemical
rays,” in the common acceptation of the term, we might look for the effect in the blue,
violet, or indigo spaces ; but if it were the Licut, the gas should make its appear-
ance in the yellow, with some in the green, and some in the orange. I made the trial
several times, and found it much more easy to accomplish than I had-expected.
The results were briefly as follows: —In the tube that was in the red space a minute
bubble was sometimes found, but sometimes none at all. That in the orange con-
tained a more considerable quantity ; in the yellow ray a very large amount, compa-
ratively speaking; in the green a much smaller quantity ; in the blue, the indigo, the
violet, and the extra-spectral space at that end, not a solitary bubble. From these
facts, in connexion with some results obtained by the use of bichromate of potash as
an absorptive medium, I conclude that it is the rays of light which effect the decom-
position, and that the rays of heat and the tithonic rays have nothing to do with the
phenomenon. The alkaline bicarbonates are easily decomposed by elevation of tem-
perature, yielding a portion of their acid at the boiling point of water. Instead of
using a solution cf carbonic acid, I endeavoured to effect the decomposition of these
salts by leaves in the sunlight, and found that it tock place with facility. Nor is the
effect limited to the removal and decomposition of the second atom of the acid. It
passes on to the first; the neutral carbonate of soda itself decomposing and yielding
oxygen gas. In like manner the sesquicarbonate of ammonia may be made to yield
a very pure oxygen gas. Dr. Draper, in concluding this communication, alludes to
his method of multiplying the Daguerréotype pictures, as published in the Philosophi-
cal Magazine, and then mentions a process of precipitating copper, after the picture
has been fixed by gold, by the electrotype process, on the plate, which, as he states,
gives a very perfect copy. “It is difficult,” says the Professor, “ to describe in words
the beauty and perfection of these ‘ copper-tithonotypes.’ The problem of multi-
plying the Daguerréotype may be now regarded as completely solved.”
On Chromatype, a new Photographie Process. By R. Hunt.
We are indebted to Mr. M. Ponton for the discovery of the first photographie
process in which chromic acid was the active agent. He used a paper saturated
with the bichromate of potash, which, on exposure to sunshine, speedily passed from
a fine yellow colour iato a dull brown, giving, consequently, a negative picture. HE.
Becquerel improved upon this process, by sizing the paper with starch previously to the —
application of the bichromate of potash, which enabled him to convert the negative
picture into a positive one by the use of a solution of iodine, which combined with
the starch in those parts on which the light had not acted, or acted but slightly, forming
the blue iodide of starch. These pictures are, however, tediously produced ; they —
are seldom clear and distinct, and failure too frequently follows the utmost care,
While the author was pursuing an extensive series of researches on the influence of
the solar rays on the salts of different metals, he was led to the discovery of a pro-
cess by which positive photographs are very easily produced. Several of the chro-
mates may be used in this process; but the author prefers those of mercury or cop-
per, the most certain effects being produced by the chromate of copper, and, indeed,
in a much shorter time than with any of the other chromates, The papers are thus
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35
prepared: good writing-paper is washed over with a solution of the sulphate of cop-
per and partially dried ; it is then washed with a solution of the bichromate of pot-
ash and dried at a little distance from the fire. Papers thus prepared may be kept
for any length of time, and are always ready for use. They are not sufficiently sensitive
for use in the camera obscura, but they are available for every other purpose. An en-
graving—botanical specimens or the like—being placed upon the paper in a proper
photographic copying-frame, it is exposed to sunshine for a time, varying with the in-
tensity of light from five to fifteen or twenty minutes. The result is generally a
negative picture, This picture isnow washed over with a solution of nitrate of silver,
which immediately produces a very beautiful deep orange picture upon a light dun
colour, or sometimes perfectly white ground. This picture is quickly fixed by being
washed in pure water and dried. The author remarked that, if saturated solutions
were used, a negative picture was first produced, but if the solutions were diluted with
three or four times their bulk of water, the first action of the sun’s rays was to darken
the paper, immediately upon which a very rapid bleaching action followed, giving an
exceedingly faint positive picture, which was brought out in great delicacy by the
nitrate of silver. It is necessary that pure water should be used for the fixing, as the
presence of any muriate damages the picture, and hence arises another pleasing vari-
ation of the chromatype. If the positive picture be placed in a very weak solution of
common salt, the images slowly fade out, leaving a very faint negative outline. If it
be taken from the solution of salt and dried, a positive picture of a lilac colour may be
produced by a few minutes’ exposure to sunshine. Prismatic analysis has shown that
the changes are produced by a class of rays, which lie between the least refrangible
blue, and the extreme limits of the violet rays of the visible prismatic spectrum—the
maximum darkening effect being produced by the mean blue ray, whilst the bleaching
_ effect appears to be produced with the greatest energy by the least refrangible violet
‘rays,
j
On the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants. By R. Hunt,
___ The peculiar influence exerted upon the germination of seeds, and the growth of
_ the young plants by coloured light, has been for some years the subject of the author’s
investigations. The results show the surprising powers exerted by the more luminous
rays in preventing germination, and in destroying the healthful vigour of the young
_ plant. Plants, when made to grow under the influence of the red rays, bend from
the light as something to be avoided; while the blue or chemical rays are efficacious
in quickening the growth of plants. Since the publication of the last Report, the
author has tried plants of a great variety of kinds, and the same effects have been
Ba iced. It has, however, been found, that although blue light accelerates ger-
“mination, and gives a healthful yigour to the young plant, its stimulating influences are
- too great to ensure a perfect growth, The strength of the plant appears to be ex-
bended in the production of a beautiful deep green foliage ; and it is only by checking
his tendency, by the substitution of a yellow for a blue light, that the plant can be
rought into its flowering and seeding state, The etiolating influence of the green
_ Yays was observed, as well as the power which plants possessed of sending out
i shoots of a great length, in search of that light which is essential to their vigour, ©
On the Influence of Light on a great variety of Metallic and other Com-
= pounds. By R. Hunt,
a The author, having briefly detailed the numerous discoveries in this branch of in-
quiry, from the time of the alchymists to the present day, proceeded to describe the
results of his experiments, made with nearly every variety of ‘chemica] combination.
‘Tt was not with the view of establishing any theory relative to the solar agency, that
7 this matter was brought before the Section, but merely to put upon record a great
: “number of facts, which appear to prove the constant acting of the sun’s rays upon all
_ bodies, and to show the boundless extent of this inquiry. It has been shown by Petit,
~ that light influences the arrangements of crystals. Labillardiére and Michelotti have
shown the necessity of light to the development of pores in plants, and its injurious
“influence on young plants and animals. The experiments of Ritter and others, down
— | ai Slo | D2
36 REPORT—1843.
to the time of Niepce and Daguerre, have shown many peculiarities in the action of
this agent. But since that period the list has been wonderfully increased by the re-
searches of Wollaston, of Davy, of Fox Talbot, and, above all, by the extraordinary
discoveries of Sir John Herschel. We are now acquainted with combinations of
silver, of gold, of mercury, of iron, and many non-metallic bodies, which are speedily
changed under the sun’s influence, and which are sufficiently sensitive to be used as
photographic agents. The author has been successful in adding platinum to the list ;
which metal gives considerable promise of utility in the art. He has also been suc-
cessful in producing photographic images on the salts of manganese, of tin, of anti-
mony, of lead, of cobalt, and of arsenic. He has produced pictures with chlorine,
iodine, and bromine vapours received upon the surfaces of a great variety of metals,
and even on wood and on leather; and many of the alkaline and earthy salts have
given evidence of this extraordinary property of the sun’s rays. The author con-
tended, that from the extensive series of results which he had obtained, he was fully
warranted in expressing it as his opinion, that all bodies were constantly, under the
influence of the solar emanations, undergoing a change of state; that, indeed, photo-
graphic images were always formed, cn whatever body a shadow fell: we were only
ignorant of the reagents by which these images could be called forth; but we were
rapidly arriving at the knowledge we desired.
On a new Method of testing the Hygrometric Formula usually applied to Ob-
servations made with a wet and dry Thermometer. By J. Avsoun, M.D.
Some years ago Professor Apjohn communicated to the Royal Irish Academy a for-
mula for inferring what is called the dew-point, from observations of the wet and dry
thermometers alone, and he considered the accuracy of his formula as fully established
by three experimental tests, which he explained in a memoir read to the same learned
body. ‘But finding,” he says, “that some still doubted, I thought it might be as
well to give publicity to a fourth method of verification which I have lately em-
ployed, and which has in the fullest manner sustained the general conclusion to which
the previous test experiments had conducted. It is well known that if unity repre-
sents the specific gravity of dry atmospherical air at the temperature of 60°, and
under a pressure of 30°, that its specific gravity at the temperature ¢", and under the
pressure f" will be represented by the expression
Ti
461 +7" 30
Now if we suppose the air at 2 to be saturated with moisture whose elastic force is
P 5 fi
", the specific gravity of the aqueous vapour will be ——, x 4 X_ ‘625, the lat-
f'; P gravity q pour wi be er 30 625,
ter factor being the density of vapour in relation to air, having the same temperature
with it, and existing under the same pressure. The air, however, being not at its
dew-point, but at some higher temperature ¢, in order to obtain the specific gravity of
the vapour at this latter temperature, the expression already got must be multiplied
HM i
by ene by which it will become - i +x f X *625. This, then, is the exact
specific gravity of aqueous vapour in air, whose temperature is ¢, and whose dew-point
is t!'. And multiplying this by *31 v, ‘31 being the weight of one cubic inch of atmo-
spheric air, and v the volume, or number of cubic inches of air,
OMRON Liter 1a, , __ 3°3647 f"
a1 ne * 30% 625 x oP aE! 8
of aqueous vapour whose maximum tension is f", and existing in v cubic inches of
air whose temperature is ¢. Let us suppose this quantity to be determined by expe-
riment, and to be represented by w. Then
33647, f" 1 w . 46142
Ie KOM ond l= FX Seay
Knowing therefore w, which may be got very accurately by experiment, we can cal-
—— ! —
culate /”. But, by the hygrometric formula, f" =f! — : _ xf a : this latter
x v is the weight of v cubic inches
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37
value should, of course, be equal to the former; and without detaining the Section
with the actual numbers which I have obtained, I may state that the method just ex-
plained has completely established the accuracy of the expression which gives the
force of vapour at the dew-point in terms of the difference of temperatures of the wet
and dry thermometer, of the pressure of the air, and of the tension of vapour at the
, temperature indicated by the instrument, whose bulb is kept moist,
i “ I have only in conclusion to state, that the quantity w is got by slowly passing, by
means of an aspirator, a known volume of atmospheric air through a system of two
’ tubes, one of which is packed with small fragments of chloride of calcium, and the
___ other with asbestos moistened by oil of vitriol.”
¢
Some Remarks on the Chemistry of the Arsenites. By J. Apsoun, MD.
This paper contained an account of a variety of experiments, made with the view
_ __ of obtaining a more exact knowledge of the arsenites than can be acquired from
books, +The substances chiefly experimented on were arsenite of copper, arsenite of
lime, and arsenite of silver.
_ Abstract of a Letter from Dr. Will of Giessen, on an Improved Method of
ascertaining the commercial Value of Alkalies or carbonated Alkalies, Acids,
& and Oxides of Manganese.
& The apparatus by which this determination is effected consists of two small glass
flasks (A and B), connected by the bent tube c, which passes through corks in the
_necks of the flasks. Into the flask A is put the solution of the substance to be tried,
and into B is put concentrated sulphuric acid. Two other tubes pass through the
_ corks in the flasks—the one, passing through the cork of A, dips below the surface
_of the solution, and is closed with a small piece of wax, while the one in B is left
_ open, and does not reach below the fluid contained in it. Suppose the flask A to
contain a weighed quantity of a solution of a carbonate, then a known quantity of
_ sulphuric acid is introduced into B, and the whole apparatus weighed: the tube 6
_ being then closed with wax, if air be blown into a, a portion of the sulphuric acid
passes over through the tube c into the flask A, and comes in contact with the car-
bonate. The consequence is an evolution of carbonic acid, which must go through
the concentrated sulphuric acid, and is thus made perfectly dry. When all the car-
©
_
oe he
yo G
_
3
ma writ ry
__ bonate is decomposed, the piece of wax on the tube d is removed, and air sucked
___ through the tube a, in order to remove all the carbonic acid. The apparatus is then
___ to be weighed, and, from these data, the quantity of alkali combined with carbonic
___ acid may be easily calculated. The same method is applicable to the acids, particu-
__. larly to vinegar, which was till now a very tedious and, at the same time, a very in-
accurate operation. Dr. Will considers that the value of soda or potash can be thus
___ determined with much greater accuracy than according to the method of Descroizell,
improved by Gay-Lussac. If a soda contains a sulphite or a hyposulphite, which is
a almost always the case, the alkalimetrical method in use at present gives quite wrong
__ results: the same is the case if potash contains phosphates, silicates, &c,
————
y.
38 REPORT—1843.
Chemical Suggestions on the Agriculture of Cork.
By Tuomas JENNINGS.
The author drew attention to the present state of agriculture in the south of Ire-
land, and to the immense importance of some system by which the yalue of the lime-
stones and sands of the district might be carefully ascertained by good chemical ana-
lysis. Two kinds of limestone were found in the neighbourhood of Cork ; the variety
which yielded the best lime for building was found to be very inferior to the other as
amanure. The sands from the bed of the river Lee, and many of the sea sands were
used as manure with very uncertain results. The author suggested the propriety of
having correct analyses made, and large masses of the rock, or of the sand, placed in
some museum, where the results of careful analysis should be registered.
On the Minerals of Cork. By R. W. Townsenv.
A series of minerals, all of them collected by Mr, Townsend, was exhibited. This
collection included some beautiful specimens of copper pyrites, gray copper, and ma-
lachite, manganese ores of a fine character, and some rare iron ores, and may be re-
garded as giving a fair view of the mineralogical condition of the county.
Mr. Townsend also exhibited a specimen of manganese taken from the deposit
formed by a thermal spring near the Cape of Good Hope. The water issued at a
temperature of 110°, and so large was the quantity of manganese, which, in some
form, it held in solution, that a very thick incrustation lined the stream within a short
distance of the spring.
On newly-discovered Three-twin Crystals of Harmotome, so arranged that
they form a regular Rhombic Dodecahedron. By Dr. F. TAmyau of Berlin.
The celebrated Mohs was the first who observed that the modification of the pri-
mary form of harmotome was such as could never belong to the pyramidical system,
in which it was placed by Werner and his disciples. Messrs. Phillips and Brooke
gave measurements of the mineral, and confirmed the idea of Mohs. During a resi-
dence in Paris Dr. Tamnau met with a very beautiful three-twin crystal of harme-
tome, and also in Bohemia, in a basaltic rock in the neighbourhood of Aussig, on the
bank of the river Elbe, It was accompanied with small crystals of analcime—little
white crystals of chabasite,—and some yellow-brown crystals of carbonate of lime,
which specimens were exhibited. Each of these little groups of erystals consists of
three single crystals, so arranged that the axes cross each other at angles of 90°.
By this arrangement the faces of the pyramid on the one crystal falls exactly together
with the faces of the same pyramid of the other crystal ; and if those faces were en-
larged so much, that the faces of the prism should not be visible, they would give the
form of a regular rhombic dodecahedron. Not only are the angles of the pyramid
exactly determined independent of any single measurement, but it is also decided that
the two angles of the pyramid are of the same value, and consequently that the mi-
neral is not in its primary form of the right rectangular, but that it is a right square
four-sided prism. And it may at the same time be observed that, however the dis-
tribution of the secondary faces may show the harmotome to belong to the prismatic
system, we have in it a remarkable instance of a mineral which is pyramidical in its
mathematical measurement, and at the same time prismatic in its physical qualities.
ome ee
Dr. Tamnau, of Berlin, exhibited some rare mineralogical specimens :—1. A group
of Datholith, from the neighbourhood of Andreasberg, in the Hartz. 2. Two speci-
mens of rose-coloured Harmotome, from Andreasberg. The colour of these speci-
mens was attributed to the presence of a small quantity of cobalt. They were re-
markable for the great size of their crystals, which exhibited not only the usual twins,
but also curious and complicated arrangements of three and four, combined according
to laws not yet sufficiently understood to allow of their being clearly described.
3. Two very large isolated crystals of Beryl, from Royalstone, Massachusetts. These
were of a beautiful sea-green colour, one of them of the usual form, a regular six-sided
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39
prism, with the direct terminal face. The other exhibited the faces of the second
six-sided prism, of a twelve-sided prism, and of a twelve-sided irregular pyramid. The
last of those forms is here observed for the first time.
On the Relative Electro-Negative Powers of Iodine and Fluorine.
By the Rev. T. Knox.
The object of this paper was to controvert the statement made by Brande in his
‘ Chemistry,’ that the fluorides are not decomposed by chlorine or iodine; and to
show, as the result of experiments, that fluorine has been erroneously placed above
iodine as a negative element.
On the Electricity of High-Pressure Steam, and a description of a Hydro-
lectric Machine. By W. ARMSTRONG.
This paper recapitulated the circumstances which first drew the attention of the
author to steam as a source of electrical power, and the successive steps by which
he had succeeded in arranging apparatus to render it effectual. The powers of the
* Hydro-electric Machine’ were described and illustrated by a diagram. The author
assents to Dr. Faraday’s opinion, that the force with which the particles of water are
rubbed against the glass, is in this case the cause of the development of electricity.
On the late Fires at Liverpool, and on Spontaneous Combustion.
By A. Booru.
This communication consisted of an enumeration cf cases in which fires had, as it
was supposed, originated in the spontaneous combustion of material used in manu-
factures ; and the author suggested the propriety of instituting an extensive series of
experimental inquiries into this class of pheenomena, which are but ill understood.
On the Chemical Composition of Smoke, its Production and Influence on
Organic Substances. By A. Boorn, F.L.S.
——-
On the Production and Prevention of Smoke. By Henry Dircxs.
Mr. Dircks, referring in particular to the plans of Mr. C. Wye Williams for the pre-
vention of smoke, thought it important to distinguish between open fires, and close
fires or furnaces. Open fires would always allow an escape of absolute coal-gas, and
admit atmospheric air to the chimney ; whereas the contrary would be the result with
_ the close fires of engine-boiler furnaces. He said that the leading fact of consequence,
in reference to the smoke, was, that it differed materially from the impure gas evolved
from the coal in the furnace. The plans hitherto adopted by manufacturers were
chiefly intended to burn smoke, and the prevailing principle of all such plans was to
burn the largest quantity of fuel with the least quantity of air, The error of this
method must appear to every one conyersant with chemistry. Smoke may be con-
sidered as mere carbonaceous matter floating in an atmosphere of the ordinary in-
combustible products of combustion; the admission of air to this smoke is of no value,
as it will only cool it, and make it more readily deposit its sooty particles. The im-
pure gas of the coal, on the contrary, may be inflamed bya due admixture of air. In
conclusion, Mr, Dircks begged to state as a general principle, that on the large scale
of the furnace, air, in as divided a form as possible to favour rapid diffusion mechani-
cally, should be supplied to the impure gaseous products of the fuel independent of
the supply of air to the solid fuel on the grate. Mr. Dircks said that the prin-
gre he advocated was that practically carried out in the Argand furnaces of Mr. C.
Wye Williams,
Eulogium on the late Richard Kirwan, LL.D. By Dr. Pickexts.
_ The author traces the progress of this very distinguished philosopher from the pe-
riod when, by the death of his brother, who was accidentally shot while entering the
40 REPORT—1843.
Irish House of Commons, he retired from the bar. For his first efforts, a series of
essays, he received the Copley medal, and he was elected a Member of the Royal
Trish Academy. Chemistry and mineralogy were the sciences to which Mr. Kirwan
particularly applied herself. He was fond of metaphysics, and wrote a volume on
logic. He also bestowed much attention on meteorology, and his essay on the vari-
ations of the barometer has obtained the approbation of Dalton and others.
GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
On the Distribution of Erratic Blocks in Ireland, and particularly those of the
North Coasts of the Counties of Sligo and Mayo. By Ricnarp Grirritu,
F.G.S.
Ir we look to the distribution of erratic blocks as indicative of the direction of the
currents by which they were distributed, we find in Ireland generally that they were
carried from north-west to south-east, though the current was often modified by the
opposition of mountain ridges.
The prevailing component of our drift is rolled limestone and clayey matter, de-
rived from our great limestone field, which occupies two-thirds of the island. This
matter is seldom stratified: it consists of an heterogeneous mass of large and small
rounded pebbles of limestone, intermixed with clay, fine gravel, and rarely siliceous
sand.
This mass often exceeds 100 feet in thickness; it pervades all our valleys, and
even the interior of some of our mountain ranges, to a considerable height ; it occurs
either in one thick mass, resting on the rock, or in the form of those remarkable low,
but steep gravel hills called Eskers. The prevailing direction of our mountain ridges
is from north-east to south-west at right angles to the supposed direction of the
current, and, as might be expected, we find the gravel-banks and detritus distributed
on the north-western declivities of the hills, and intruding into the interior valleys ;
the slate districts of Armagh, Cavan, Monaghan, &c. might be instanced.
In some instances, in the granite and slate districts of Wicklow, as in the valley of
the Slaney, the limestone gravel has passed through the valleys of the mountain ridge,
and has formed a deposit of limestone pebbles, eastward to the range of Mount
Leinster, and spread over the slate country in the neighbourhood of Newtownbarry in
Wexford.
Similar facts may be observed in the Slievebloom mountains, as well as the Galtees
and Monavoullagh mountains of the counties of Limerick and Waterford.
Limestone gravel is found on the western declivities in the valleys of all the moun-
tain ranges mentioned, but none has been observed on the eastern declivities. We
may hence infer, that where the mountains were of sufficient height, the currents
‘were interrupted, and the gravel did not pass to the eastward. The summit of the
Baltinglass hill in the county of Wicklow is elevated 1256 feet above the level of the
sea. Its southern and western declivities are covered by limestone gravel to an ele-
vation of upwards of 800 feet, but none occurs on its eastern declivity. The neigh-
bouring hills of Spinan’s and Brusselstown are also covered by limestone gravel to
the height of 880 feet ; hence we may assume that the transporting force did not ex-
ceed an elevation of 1000 feet.
On the top of the gravel deposit, and independent of it in many localities, are
found boulders of granite, and red and light gray conglomerate, scattered over the
surface of the country, but rarely, if ever included or intermixed with the gravel lying
below. Owing to a peculiarity in the composition of granite of certain districts, it
is not difficult to detect the locality from which each was derived; hence he had no
hesitation in saying that he found small boulders of the granite of Cunnemara in
Galway to the east of the Slievebloom mountains, in the line of the valley of Roscrea.
Similar boulders, but larger, occur in the King’s County, and also in the limestone
district of Galway, indicating that the direction of the line of transport was from
north-west to south-east through a very large portion of Ireland; this, however, is
not universal. t
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41
“In the county of Sligo are two mountain ridges, the Ox mountains and the Curlew
mountains, which have nearly parallel directions; the Curlew range being about
twelve miles south of the other. The Curlew mountains consist of reddish-brown
sandstone, connected with the Upper Silurian system, and the Ox mountains are
composed of mica-slate and granite, the former predominating, and the country situ-
ated to the north and south of both ranges is composed of rocks belonging to the
Carboniferous system.
In the limestone district south of the Curlew: mountains the gravel hills consist of
limestone solely ; and ina northern direction the gravel banks extend up the southern
slopes of the hills of brown sandstone, where numerous pits have been opened to
raise the limestone for manure.
Ascending the ridge of the Curlews, we find numerous boulders of yellowish-gray
sandstone scattered on the surface. Passing over the summit, and descending to the
northward, into the limestone valley of Ballymote and Tobercurry, the surface is
thickly covered with boulders of reddish-brown sandstone, some of them weighing
several tons, the largest being nearest to the Curlew range. On approaching the
base of the Ox mountains the red boulders are still numerous, but diminish in size.
Ascending the mica-slate ridge of the Ox mountains, we still find small boulders
of the same sandstone, together with small eskers of limestone gravel in some of the
valleys. These eskers are remarkable, owing to their forming ridges directly across
the valleys. This is particularly the case in the valley of Lough Easky, situated in
the middle of the mountain range. To the north and south of this lake the rock is
mica-slate, but at the lake there has been an extensive protrusion of large-grained
crystalline granite, composed of flesh-red felspar, white felspar, gray quartz and
black mica, the mica-slate being metamorphic along the line of contact.
_ In the line of the road to Easky Lough, two miles south of the lake, the valley is
crossed at right angles by two eskers of rolled limestone, varying in size from two to
three inches in diameter, mixed with small grains of limestone and a little clay.
The declivities of these eskers are steep, as is usual, and their height may be about
thirty feet; their elevation above the limestone plain to the south, whence the lime-
stone of the eskers appears to have been derived, is 250 feet. It is remarkable that
numerous large boulders of mica-slate, exactly similar to the rock of the district, are
strewed over the surface of these eskers, but none of them are intermixed with the
gravel.
Approaching Lough Easky, there is an elongated sinuous esker, nearly parallel to
the line of the valley. This differs in its composition as well as direction from those
just described. It is composed of pebbles of quartz and mica-slate, intermixed with
siliceous sand, the whole being evidently derived from the adjoining mountain. Here
is a moraine which may be accounted for according to the hypothesis of Agassiz ;
and so may also the boulders of mica-slate, which cover the eskers already mentioned,
but not the eskers themselves.
» Following the valley of Lough Easky in a northern direction to the sea-shore, be-
yond the village of Easky, for ten miles, the surface of the limestone country, situated
to the north of the Ox mountains, is thickly strewed over by large boulders of gra-
nite, some of which (close to the sea-shore) are of enormous dimensions; and one,
which is cleft through the centre, contains 1360 cubic feet, equal in weight to 100
tons,—a mass which it is difficult to conceive could be moved by water, unless in
the form of ice.
The granite of these boulders is identical with that of Lough Easky, hence we must
suppose that they were derived from that source.
Similar granite boulders occur along the whole line of coast westward from Easky
to Erris in Mayo. A few rolled blocks of metamorphic mica-slate may occasionally
be observed, but not one boulder of limestone, though the entire district is composed
of carboniferous strata. It may be observed that the whole of these granite boulders
are precisely similar in composition to the granite of the Ox mountains, particularly
of Lough Easky, Lough Talt, and Foxford.
Taking all these facts together,—namely, the boulders of the brownish-red sand-
stone covering the surface of the limestone valley between the Curlew and the Ox
mountains, the Ox mountains containing eskers of limestone gravel evidently derived
_ from the limestone valley of the south, and the granite boulders of Easky and of the
42 REPORT—1843.
north coast of Mayo derived from the Ox Mountains, also situated to the south,—
we arrive at the conclusion, that at least in the localities mentioned the current has
been from the south, and nof from the north-west, as has probably been the case in
other districts of Ireland.
On the Lower portion of the Carboniferous Limestone Series of Ireland.
By Ricuarp Grirritn, £.G.S,
Referring to his communication at the Manchester Meeting (Report for 1842), the
author stated the subdivisions of the series to be described in the following descending
series beneath the millstone grit:—1.The Upper Limestone. 2. The Limestone
Shale, or Calp. 3. The Great, or Lower Limestone. 4. The Carboniferous Slate.
5. The yellow or Lower Carboniferous Sandstone.
1. The Upper Limestone.—Its average thickness may be about 600 feet. It con-
sists of light gray limestone, alteruating near the top with gray flinty slate and occa-
sionally dolomite. The lower beds frequently contain disseminated rounded masses
of gray and black Lydian-stone. It presents numerous mural escarpments, many of
which are cavernous. It is very fossiliferous, and the fossils correspond nearly with
those of the carboniferous limestone of England, though many are peculiar to it.
2. The Calp is distinguished as presenting a succession of beds of dark gray shale,
alternating with dark gray impure argillo-siliceous limestone. This group, when per-
fect, is separable into three parts,—the upper and lower shales, and an intervening
yellowish-gray sandstone. The average thickness of the whole may be about 1000
feet, though in some localities it amounts to 1800 feet. It contains numerous fossils ;
those found in the fine shale beds differ from the upper limestone, the most charac-
teristic being several varieties of Posidonia.
3. The Great or Lower Limestone occupies a large portion of the surface of Ireland.
Its colour varies from light to dark gray, and its structure is usually less crystalline
than the upper. The lower beds are frequently dolomitic, and occasionally oolitic.
This group is more abundant in fossils than either of the foregoing, and contains
nearly the whole of those found in the two upper members of the system, with the
exception of Posidonia; its average thickness may be about 1000 feet.
4, The foregoing comprehends the whole of what was formerly considered to be-
long to the carboniferous limestone of Ireland, the strata beneath having been pre-
viously included in the Old Red Sandstone; but in his paper of the preceding year,
he was enabled to show, by comparing the fossils in the strata below the limestone
with those above, that they must be attached to the Carboniferous, and not to the
Old Red or Devonian system.
These lower members have been subdivided into two, the carboniferous slate and
the yellow sandstone.
The whole list of fossils at present discovered contains 925 species without fishes
or plants, of which 359 are new and have been figured (these are exclusive of those
contained in the Ordnance Geological Memoir of a part of the North of Ireland, by
Capt. Portlock, R.E., published during the present year).
The lower portion of the Carboniferous system of Ireland, to which he has given
the name of yellow sandstone, to distinguish it from the old red which lies beneath,
is much more fully developed in the North of Ireland than in the South; some very
fine sections may be examined in detail on the north coast of Donegal Bay; also on
the northern shore of Lower Lough Erne, north-east of Pettigoe; likewise between
Balderig Bay and Killala in the county of Mayo; in the valley of Ballinascreen near
Maghera in the county of Derry, and many other localities.
.
He first proceeded to examine the section near Ballycastle in Mayo, and said that
the micaceous quartzite, belonging to the mica-slate of Erris, is succeeded uncon-
formably by strata of red sandstone, rather fine-grained, alternating with red and
dark green shale, and occasionally with yellowish-gray sandstone and impure gray
limestone. These beds are 650 feet thick; the dark gray shales and limestones con-
tain fossils; the shales, Cythere, Modiolez, Nucula, Cypricardia, &c., many of which
are peculiar to them ; the limestones contain the usual Brachiopoda and corals which
are found in the upper members of the series. Ascending in the series, beds of dark
gray limestone, frequently arenaceous, occur, alternating with dark gray, red and
bP See FE ae ee
j TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43
4
green shales and gray sandstones, the shales containing the same fossils as before.
These alternations are 300 feet thick, the limestone amounting to about one-third
of the whole. Still ascending, there are a series of beds of arenaceous limestone,
some of which are burned for lime, amounting to about 100 feet: from these beds
108 species of fossils were collected, of which 96 are common to the upper members
of the carboniferous limestone of Ireland. The most numerous are Product, Orthis,
Atrypa, &c. These limestones are succeeded by beds of dark gray shale, gray and
yellowish sandstone, and some thin beds of impure limestone about 360 feet thick ;
the shales as usual containing fossils, the Modiola Macadami (Port.) being abundant,
with some fish-scales and teeth, and plants.
On the western shore of Killala Bay, the yellow sandstone of Kilcummin Head is
succeeded by beds belonging to the carboniferous slate, or lower limestone shale,
which are at once recognized by the absence of sandstone and the abundance of
corals, particularly by several varieties of Fenestelle, which are very rare{in the shales
beneath: these corals may be considered characteristic of the carboniferous slate.
_ Thus it appears that on the north coast of Mayo there is a thickness of strata
_ amounting to 1400 feet intervening between the bottom of the red sandstone and
the carboniferous slate, the whole of which contains fossils, with the exception of
the hard beds of red and gray sandstone, which with few exceptions are devoid of
organic remains, whether at the base or top of the series. ‘The question then arises,
can we separate the lower portion of the section, which assumes a red colour, from
the upper, when it is remembered that the gray shales and limestones which alternate
with the red sandstones contain more than three-fourths of the same fossils that
are found higher up in the carboniferous limestone series?
; Mr. Griffith next described the district situated to the north-east of Lough Erne,
_ which contains a great variety of strata belonging to the Carboniferous, the Upper
_ Silurian, and Mica-Slate systems. The succession of the strata as they occur in this
interesting district was exhibited in two sections, one of which extended from the
_ mica-slate district of the county of Donegal, north of Pettigoe, across the limestone
and sandstone valley of Pettigoe, Kesh and Ederny ; it afterwards traverses the
_ brownish-red conglomerate and sandstone district of Lisnarick and Irvinestown, and
- in continuation the dark gray slate district of Lisbellaw, which contains Silurian
fossils ; from whence it is continued across the limestone valley of Brookborough,
_ thence over the Slievebeagh mountains, and terminates in the greywacke slate di-
_ strict of the county of Monaghan, thus exhibiting the structure of the country fora
length of forty-two miles. The other commenced in the mica-slate of Dooish
mountain, county of Tyrone, and extended eastward, traversing the great district of
brownish-red sandstone and conglomerate, and in continuation the carboniferous
limestone series of the valley of Clogher ; then crossing the Slievebeagh mountains,
terminates in the greywacke slate at Newbliss in the county of Monaghan.
Commencing at the northern extremity of the most westerly of these sections, that
near Pettigoe, we find the mica-slate covered in an unconformable position by a bed
of red conglomerate about fifty feet in thickness, which is succeeded by yellow sand-
stone alternating with dark gray shale, and occasional beds of dolomitic limestone ;
_ the shale contains the casts of plants, and also in abundance Modiola Macadami ;
_ these strata are about 150 feet in thickness: above we have alternations of dark gray
hale with occasional beds of gray sandstone, and a few beds of calcareous clay iron-
‘stone sixty feet thick. This mass of shale and sandstone is succeeded by a series of
beds of blue limestone, occasionally alternating with dark gray shale and yellowish-
gtay sandstone 300 feet in thickness. It is remarkable that a thin bed of coal half
an inch thick is included between two of the limestone beds at the base of this divi-
ion: the limestone is frequently dolomitic, and, as is usual in such cases, fossils are
frare occurrence. Above we havea succession of beds consisting of alternations of
| limestone and dolomite about 100 feet in thickness, followed by alternations of dark
gray impure limestone and black and gray shale 300 feet thick, on the top of which we
have beds of gray siliceous limestone about sixty feet in thickness. These calcareous
_ strata are succeeded by a great accumulation of beds consisting of gray sandstone and
shale; in some places the sandstone, and in others the shale predominate, the whole
deing interspersed with occasional beds of impure limestone, amounting altogether to
a thickness of about 700 feet. The shale contains in abundance Modiola Macadami
and the usual fossils belonging to the shale beds.
44 REPORT—1843.
These strata are followed by others very similar in character, excepting that the
sandstone rather predominates: near the base, in the lands of Formil, close to the
village of Kesh, a bed of highly carbonaceous shale with two inches of bituminous
coal occurs in the sandstone. The shales produce the same Modiolas, Pectens, &c.
as those lower in the series; but on the lands of Drumcurren, on the left bank of the
river Banagh, numerous perfect casts of the scales of the Holoptychius Portlockii,
accompanied by a single specimen of a tooth of the Chomatodus linearis ; also plants
identical with those of Kilcummin Head, particularly the Sphenopteris, and a small-
leaved plant, apparently a Fucoid.
Above the fish-scales, and approaching the great or lower limestone, the shales
were found to contain Fenestellz, accompanied by Turbinolia, &c., indicative of the
carboniferous slate, but owing to the unusual abundance of sandstone which accom-
panies the shale, it is impossible in this locality to draw the line of separation between
the carboniferous slate or lower limestone shale and the yellow sandstone ; the thick-
ness of this upper portion of the series may be about 1200 feet, thus making the
whole series, including the yellow sandstone and carboniferous slate, about 2900
feet in thickness. The carboniferous slate is succeeded by the lower limestone,
the thickness being about 700 feet, and this again by the calp shale and calp
sandstone.
Near Lisnarick, in the line of section, the calp series rests unconformably on
brownish-red conglomerate, forming a portion of the great district, chiefly composed
of alternations of that rock and brown micaceous shale and sandstone slate, which
occupies considerable portions of the counties of Fermanagh and Tyrone, and which
in two localities, as at Pomeroy and Lisbellaw, is connected with rocks belonging to
the Silurian system.
In the line of section this series occupies a tract of country extending from Lisna-
rick on the west to Lisbellaw on the east, a distance of fourteen miles. At Lisbellaw
the Silurian rocks are suceeeded unconformably by strata belonging to the yellow
sandstone series, which is here very imperfectly developed, owing probably to its
being cut through by the projection through it of the Silurian and brown sandstone
series. The yellow sandstone is followed by the carboniferous slate, and this again
by the lower limestone, and in continuation by the calp, and calp sandstone of the
Slievebeagh mountains, from beneath which in an eastern direction we find the lower
limestone and carboniferous slate, appearing at the surface in the valley of Monaghan,
and terminating unconformably on the greywacke slate which bounds that valley to
the south-east.
The most important part of this section, as far as the lower members of the car-
boniferous series are concerned, is that situated to the west of the brownish-red con-
glomerate district. In it we find the same succession of strata which have already
been discovered as occurring on the north coast of Mayo: we have the same alterna-
tions of sandstones, shales, and impure limestone at the base, succeeded by shales and
sandstones and thin beds of limestone, each part of the series producing the same
fossils ; the limestone beds, whether arenaceous or argillaceous, containing those
which belong to the upper portions of the limestone series ; while the shales which
lie below, among, and above the arenaceous limestone, contain the same fossils, the
most characteristic being Modiola Macadami, the most remarkable the scales of the
Holoptychius Portlockii, and of the plants the Sphenopteris and the smooth-leaved
Fucoid ; hence no doubt can be entertained of the necessity of including both in one -
series, the whole being followed by the great or lower limestone.
A remarkable and extensive district of yellow sandstone occupies the whole of the
southern shore of Lough Foyle in the county of Londonderry, between the city of
Derry and the basaltic headland of Magilligan, from whence it extends southward to
Dungiven, and thence by Draperstown to the base of Slieve Gallion mountain in the
county of Londonderry. The strata in this district are divisible into three portions.
The lowest is characterized by its conglomeritic structure and the absence of shale or
calcareous matter. The colour of the base of the rock is usually red. The pebbles,
or rolled fragments of the lower beds, consist of mica-slate, similar to the rock on
which it rests, and the upper of white quartz, and occasionally of red quartzose
sandstone. These strata in the Douglas river, near Draperstown, may amount to a
thickness of 600 feet. The second division of the series is distinguished by its con-
taining numerous beds of dark gray shale approaching to black, alternating with gray —
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45
sandstone and some thin beds of impure limestone: its thickness may be about 500
_ feet. The upper or third division consists of red sandstones and red conglomerate,
_ brownish-red, and greenish- and yellowish-white shales frequently passing into marl,
and containing numerous bands of light gray nodular limestone, and occasionally
arenaceous and sometimes conglomeritic limestone, above which is a thick series of
: beds of dark gray shale, which at Cullion forms the upper portion of the series.
No fossils have been found in the lower division; the second, or black shale divi-
sion, contains numerous fossils, particularly several varieties of Cythere, Modiola
Macadami, Cypricardie, Murchisonia elongata, and several kinds of fishes, especially
Gyracanthus and Holoptychius, several of which have been described by Capt. Port-
lock, but many have not been noticed by him. The thin limestone bands in the
White Water abound with obscure Atrypas, apparently the Atrypa gregaria, which
_ also abounds in Ballington, near Ballycastle, in the county of Mayo.
_ The third, or upper division, which is about 1400 feet thick, contains no fossils ;
___ but the gray quartzose and conglomerate limestone which succeeds it contains Orthis
: crenistria, O. filiaria, Spirifera bisulcata, S. attenuata, Bellerophon apertus, Lithoden-
dron, Fenestelle, and other fossils of the carboniferous limestone, while the shale
which succeeds this produces a profusion of similar fossils, together with many others
which usually occur in the upper shales of the calp.
This remarkable deposit of sandstones and shales, which occurs in the valley of
Ballinascreen, differs in some respects from the districts of yellow sandstone already
‘described, in its containing no thick series of beds of fossiliferous limestone ; but the
occurrence of certain fossils, as Modiola Macadami, Holoptychius Portlockii, and ten
-or twelve species of Cythere similar to those found elsewhere, prove that they belong
to the series of shales which accompany the arenaceous limestone of the north coast
‘of Mayo, and in the district of Pettigoe, north of Lough Erne.
~ Another locality in which the same fossils occur is the carboniferous valley of Bal-
‘linamore in the county of Leitrim, situated between the Cairn Clon Hugh mountains
of the county of Longford, and the millstone grit district of Slieveaneerin in the county
‘of Leitrim. The strata of this valley comprehend the entire suite of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone system of Ireland.
~ Commencing from below, as exhibited in the section of the valley, we have the
greywacke slate of Cairn Clon Hugh succeeded unconformably by thin beds of red
sandstone conglomerate, followed conformably by yellowish-gray conglomeritic
sandstone, on the top of which are beds of impure arenaceous limestone and dark gray
shale, with a few thin beds of dark gray sandstone, altogether about’seventy feet in
thickness. These are followed by 150 feet thick of yellowish-gray quartzose sand-
stone, succeeded by argillaceous limestone, alternating with thin beds of dark gray
shale and gray calcareous sandstone; about 100 feet above which is the carboniferous
slate, lower limestone, calp and upper limestone in regular succession, the latter being
covered by the millstone grit series of Slieveaneerin mountain.
In the lowest calcareous strata noticed in this section, particularly in the lands of
' Monaduff in the county of Longford, were discovered numerous species of Cythere ;
also in abundance Modiola Macadami, and several plants, together with fish-spines
_ not described, and beautiful specimens of Oracanthus Milleri, perfectly identical with
/ that found in the Bristol limestone, and several specimens of Ctenacanthus. The
second limestone above the shale also contains plants, some resembling Lepidoden-
a -drons of the coal series, but of a new species. The upper beds of this limestone con-
tain Orthis crenistria in great abundance, and other fossils of the limestone series.
_ The carboniferous slate which succeeds these strata contains the Fenestellz, and the
other fossils characteristic of that division of the limestone series, as do also the lower
_ limestone, calp, and upper limestone of Slieveaneerin.
Referring to a small district of red sandstone, gray shale, and yellow and red lime-
_ stone which occurs at Cultra, on the southern shore of Belfast Lough in the county
~ of Down, Mr. Griffith said the strata of this locality had previously been considered
_ by him and other geologists to belong to the new red sandstone and magnesian lime-
stone group, but from a careful examination he had made of its strata and fossils
___-within the last year, he was now decidedly of opinion that they are coeval with the
_ valley of Ballinascreen. The section of the strata consists first of a base of the well-
| _ known greywacke of the county of Down; its strata are succeeded unconformably
| a Ye
46 REPORT-—1843.
by red sandstone passing into conglomerate, alternating with red and occasionally
reddish-gray shale, and higher in the series we meet thin beds of compact red lime-
stone; next fine-grained red and bright yellow calcareous sandstone, containing some
beds of bright yellow, fossiliferous dolomite, containing casts of Cucullea complanata,
C. unilateralis, C. Hardingii, C. trapezium, Pullastra antiqua, with Nucula, Cypri-
cardia, and some obscure univalves. These fossils are similar to those of Marwood
in North Devon.
The yellow beds appear to be succeeded by dark gray shale, the thickness of which
cannot be ascertained, as it extends seaward under low water. This shale contains
in abundance the scales of Holoptychius Portlockii, two or three varieties of Paleo-
niscus, with bones, spines, &c. of fishes undetermined, together with fifteen varieties
of Cythere, Modiola Macadami, Cypricardia socialis, Orthoceras regulare, and other
_ fossil shells which are common in the gray shales, accompanying the arenaceous
limestone in the West of Ireland.
The southern portion of the section commences at Castle Espie on the shore of
Strangford Lough. Resting unconformably on a greywacke base, we have here the
lowest limestone of the carboniferous series: it contains Actinoceras Simmsii, which
is probably the same as Orthoceras giganteum of Sowerby, Actinoceras pyramidatus,
Producta gigantea, P. latissima, Orthis cylindrica, Spirifera imbricata, Athyris glabri-
stria, Syphonophyllia cylindrica, Turbinolia fungites, &c. ; these strata are covered by
beds of red sandstone, dipping at a small angle under an arm of Strangford Lough,
but succeeded on Scrabo Hill by reddish-gray and light yellowish-gray fine-grained
sandstone. The sandstone of the Scrabo quarries is much used for building in the
surrounding country. At Scrabo, and to the north and east of it, the rock has the
same dip and inclination as at Castle Espie, accumulating to the north till it comes
in contact with the greywacke slate of the Ards peninsula, By surveying other
points in the range of this rock, Mr. Griffith arrives at the conclusion that the sand-
stone of Scrabo Hill is above the limestone of Castle Espie, and also that the sand-
stones and gray shales of Cultra are higher in the series than the same limestone.
Castle Espie limestone appeared to represent the impure arenaceous limestone of the
north coast of Mayo, and of Pettigoe in Fermanagh, and the gray shales which contain
the ichthyolites to correspond with the grey shales of Kilcummin Head in Mayo, of
the Bannah River in Fermanagh, of Monaduff in Longford, and of Ballinasereen
in Londonderry; and when we consider that these shales are interstratified with
calcareous strata which contain numerous fossils belonging to the upper members of
the carboniferous limestone of Ireland, we must perforce class the whole series with
the carboniferous limestone. Hitherto fossils of the genus Modiola have been con-
sidered to belong to the Old Red Sandstone or Devonian system, but as he had dis-
covered these fossils in great abundance as high up as the carboniferous slate, and
far above the arenaceous limestone, he should include them among the fossils be-
longing to the Carboniferous system; and hence, as these fossils have been met with
in the red shales which alternate with red and gray sandstones and limestones near
the bottom of the series, and among those strata which he had hitherto considered
to belong to the upper portion of the Old Red system, he thought he was warranted
in including them in the carboniferous series.
From what he had said, the red colour of the sandstone beds can be no longer
considered as indicative of age, as he had shown that in several localities the red
sandstone and red conglomerate occur above the arenaceous limestone and ichthyo-
lite beds.
In following this view it will be difficult in some localities to determine the line of
separation between the red sandstone of the Carboniferous and that belonging to
another system which lies below; but in the northern counties a very decided line
may be drawn, owing to the unconformability of the two systems.
On the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian and Silurian Districts of Ireland.
By Ricnarp Grirritn, F.G.S,
Mr. Griffith classed these two systems together owing to the difficulty he expe-
rienced in some localities in the North of Ireland in separating strata, which from
their fossils might be considered to belong to the Silurian system, from those which,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47
from their geological position and lithological character, have been hitherto classed
with the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone.
He commenced with those districts hitherto classed and coloured on his Geologi-
cal Map as Old Red Sandstone,
'_ The most northern of these districts extends from Lough Erne eastwards towards
Pomeroy, and occupies a tract about ten miles wide from Omagh to Ballygawley ;
it comprises about 300 square miles of the country.
This district is bounded on the north by igneous and metamorphic rocks, and on
the east, south and west, by strata belonging to the carboniferous limestone of Tyrone
and Fermanagh.
He had already mentioned, in his paper on the Carboniferous Series of Ireland,
that in our northern counties, where the red or gray sandstones which form the base
of the carboniferous series come in contact with the inferior brownish-red sandstone
or conglomerate, that the strata in every case show a sedimentary unconformability.
The district in question, when viewed from the limestone country on any side, pre-
sents a hilly character ; this is particularly the case along its south-eastern boundary,
where it rises up from the carboniferous valley of Clogher at a steep angle, forming
a range of hills which vary in height from 800 to 1000 feet. The strata dip from
the valley towards the hills, so that the base of the series appears on the outer edge,
The lower beds in the valley of Clogher, where they are visible at the unconfor-
mable contact with the carboniferous sandstone, consist of a vast accumulation of
beds of conglomerate alternating with beds of brownish-red micaceous sandstone,
and rarely with red shale. The conglomerate is usually composed of imperfectly
rounded masses of brown clay porphyry, varying in size from one inch to two feet in
diameter, together with rolled masses of very compact greenish sandstone or quartzite,
together with a green matter, probably chloritic earth, imbedded in a brown earthy
porphyritic cement, composed of a base of brown earthy matter studded with crystals
of white felspar more or less perfect.
Near Cecil demesne, four miles north-east of Clogher, this conglomerate, in very
thick masses, alternates with a brownish-red, apparently concretionary rock, com-
sed of irregular sphericles of soft earthy matter, with much white mica arranged
in laminz, so as to be only visible when split in the direction of the strike; when
examined with a lens, the cross fracture presents a porous structure, and it is re-
“ago that in no instance were any of the sphericles broken across in fracturing
e rock.
No pebbles or fragments of quartz were observed either in the porphyritic conglo-
merate or in these finer beds, but the latter usually contains fragments of a very fine-
grained brown slate, more or less rounded at the edges.
In some localities, where these finer beds are wanting, the dip and strike of the
conglomerate can rarely be determined except by observing the parallel position of
bead smaller flattened porphyritic pebbles, and occasionally the finer sedimentary
yers.
On the large scale, therefore, this trappean conglomerate, which in many of its
characters resembles the trappean ash beds of Sir H. Dela Beche, may be said to be
arranged in beds, but on the small it bears a resemblance to compact gravel. In
fact, in many cases where it appears at the surface on banks of rivers and streams,
it cannot be distinguished from ordinary diluvial gravel except by its superior hardness.
Quartz pebbles very rarely occur in this rock, a circumstance that seems to distin-
guish these conglomerates from most others.
: Ascending in the series, the conglomerate beds gradually diminish in number and
_ thickness, and give place to the finer variety, which now assumes the character of an
ordinary reddish-brown sandstone. the mica still prevails, and fragments of fine
brown slate are frequently abundant. As the beds accumulate, reddish-brown shale
_ appears alternating with the sandstone ; still ascending, the conglomerate disappears,
_and the shale increases until, in the neighbourhood of Fintona and Dromore, the
‘shale predominates. From the south-east. boundary of the district, as far as Dro-
more, the strata dip north-west, but here is a synclinal axis and the dip is reversed,
_ and consequently in proceeding from that place north-westward we are descending
in the series, and approaching Dooish mountain we meet with a porphyritic conglo-
_ Merate, dipping at a steep angle towards the southward, closely resembling that at
_ the east border of the district already described.
48 REPORT—1843.
Besides the trappean ash conglomerate, for such he must consider it, the district
contains other rocks of an igneous character. Tracts occur composed of a brownish
felspathose porphyry, apparently a metamorphic shale, or fine-grained sandstone.
The hill called Barrack Hill, south of Pomeroy, is formed of this rock, as is also the
hill of Millix near Ballygawly ; at this latter place it exhibits every appearance of
having been projected through the trappean conglomerate.
Trap dykes also occur in this district, and some of them are remarkably large, and
can be traced for many miles along the surface.
Connected with the strata above described and lying beneath them, apparently in
a conformable position, there are two small districts composed of gray arenaceous and
schistose beds, which contain numerous fossils, many of which are similar to those
described by Mr. Murchison in his ‘ Silurian System.’ One of those districts is situated
close to Pomeroy in Tyrone, and the other at Lisbellaw in the county Fermanagh.
The composition and the fossils of these districts have been so lately described by
Captain Portlock in his ‘ Geological Memoir of the County of Londonderry and por-
tions of Tyrone and Fermanagh,’ that he would not enter upon them further than to
state, that the upper portion of the series at Pomeroy and at Lisbellaw contains beds
of conglomerate composed of pebbles of quartz, mica-slate, and occasionally green
chloritic matter with a quartzose cement. This conglomerate alternates with dark
gray shale, and in some localities with red shale and brown sandstone.
The great mass of the reddish-brown sandstone and conglomerate lies conformably
above the fossiliferous Silurian slates, and unconformably under the carboniferous
rocks, hence arises the probability of the sandstone belonging to the Silurian series.
Mr.: Griffith next directed the attention of the Section to another district of red-
dish-brown sandstone and conglomerate, exactly similar in geolugical position, in
composition and character, to that just described.
This district forms a narrow mountain ridge, known by the name of the Curlew
mountains, and extends from Drumshanbo in the county of Leitrim to the north of
Boyle, Lough Gara, and Ballaghaderreen, to Mullaghanoe Hill near Swineford in
the county of Mayo, forming a chain of hills thirty-two miles in length, and rarely
more than three miles in width from north to south; the greatest elevations being
the Curlew mountain 863, and Mullaghanoe 775 feet.
The characteristic rock of this district is compact reddish-brown sandstone, alter-
nating with red shale, and including tracts of metamorphic slate passing into semi-
porphyry, precisely similar to the Tyrone district ; the conglomerates are sometimes
trappean, but usually contain quartz pebbles in abundance. In some localities the
metamorphic rock is schistose, and passes into compact reddish-brown slate, pre-
senting only imperfect crystals of felspar ; in others the line of division between the
reddish-brown sandstone and the metamorphic porphyry is quite abrupt, so as to
give to the latter the appearance of a protruded mass. A good example of this fact
is seen to the north of the demesne of Ballyedmond near Ballaghaderreen, where the
metamorphic rock forms a tongue, enveloped by the ordinary reddish-brown sand-
stone and shale unaltered, or at least very slightly affected at the contact.
In the midst of the metamorphic porphyry in the lands of Egool, about one mile
south of the mountain of Mullaghanoe, are found a series of rocks composed of alter-
nations of brownish-red sandstone and shale, greenish-gray quartzite, greenish and
bluish clay-slate, and impure gray limestone.
The succession commencing from the north consists of a base of metamorphic
porphyry, above which we have—
Feet
1. Greenish-gray quartzite, stratification irregular, about .......... 400
2. Gray quartzose conglomerate ....... Biafelafeleiarstbiertow MARU AL 7% 150
3. Greenish-gray fossiliferous slate .............. baeie biel seine seeees? 200
4. Reddish-brown sandstone and shales, about...........sseeeeee 200
5. Impure limestone, very fossiliferous........ wiv anielv aehevaviehte sicratue'e 60
6. Darkigray slate, fossiliferous. jit). (cies <\ceincldeleeiacs + wle'evels 160
7. Alternations of red conglomerate, red sandstone, and red sandstone
slate nwa: deiccwinns sit webdats J Wais fae tle side meee et Bistale viewers 300
8. Alternations of greenish-gray quartzite, sandstone and slate, about 1000
Potalys iivews dele 2470
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49
The fossils found in Egool consist of—
Cephalopoda—Orthoceras imbricatum, Bellerophon dilatatus.
Brachiopoda—Orthis rustica, O. semicircularis, O. radians, O. lata, Atrypa aspera
Leptena depressa.
Zoophyta—Stromatopora concentrica, Favosites alveolaris, F. fibrosa, F. spongites,
F. polymorpha, Catenipora escharoides, Porites pyriformis, P. patelliformis, Acervu-
_ laria Baltica, Limaria fruticosa, Turbinolopsis bina.
" The whole number of described species found amounts to twenty-seven, of which
nineteen occur in England—three in the Caradoc sandstone, and not above it, and
sixteen in the Wenlock rocks, and the shale above them.
It is to be observed, that the whole of the corals are found in an impure lime-
_ stone, and none above or below it.
Thus it appears that the reddish-brown sandstone district of the Curlew moun-
tains comprehends a series of strata alternating with red sandstone and conglome-
_ rate which contains sixteen varieties of fossils common to the Upper Silurian system
of Murchison, and three to the Lower.
It appears also that the small schistose districts at the base of the great sandstone
at Pomeroy and Lisbellaw already mentioned, also contain numerous fossils belong-
ing to the Silurian system, and many of which are common to the district of the Cur-
lew mountains. These facts merit much consideration. If we class the sandstone and
conglomerate with the Old Red system, the fossils which occur in beds interstratified
with those rocks must be considered to belong to that system. If this be not ad-
missible, then the sandstone and conglomerate of the Curlew mountains and the
Pomeroy district must belong to the Silurian system.
He would not enter into any further detail relative to the reddish-brown sand-
stone of the North of Ireland, further than to point out another district of reddish-
brown sandstone and conglomerate, situated to the north of Castlebar, and extending
_ from Newport to Lough Conn in the county of Mayo, which is similar to the fore- .
_ going, and which also lies unconformably beneath the carboniferous limestone at
_ Castlebar; but as yet no fossiliferous beds have been discovered in it.
_ ._ Myr. Griffith next directed the attention of the Section to a small district situated
_ close to the town of Kildare, in the county of Kildare, in which he had lately dis-
covered Silurian fossils.
_ . This district is about three miles long and one broad, and extends from the Red
Hills to Dunmurry Hill. The strata consist of alternations of gray limestone and
_ gray clay-slate, both very fossiliferous. Among the fossils collected, thirty-two were
_ known species ; eighteen of which have been described in the ‘Silurian System,’ all of
which occur in the Caradoc sandstone, but five of them are common to the Wenlock
and upper rocks.
__ M+. Griffith next described another Silurian district, situated at the western extre-
_ mity of the Peninsula of Dingle, in the county of Kerry. The strata consist of gray
_ slates associated with red and gray quartzites, and occasionally conglomerates. The
_ fossiliferous beds are numerous along the shore at Ferriter’s Cove, and also at Doon-
_ quin, from whence they extend eastward into the country in the line of the strike.
__ He also briefly noticed the occurrence of Silurian fossils in the gray slates of the
% coast of Waterford,’ particularly at Knockmahon Copper-mines, Ballydowan Bay, and
_ Tramore; and mentioned that this district had not yet been sufficiently examined,
oe
Le a
ne
B a that probably it extended beyond the limits marked out for it on his Geological
_ Map.
___ He observed, that in colouring the Geological Map, particularly in the south of
__ Ireland, he experienced great difficulty in drawing a line of separation between the
_ Silurian and old red sandstone groups ; the series evidently graduated into each other,
and where fossils were wanting, lithological character formed his sole guide. He
experienced considerable difficulty in determining to which group the chloritic and
_ gray quartzites of the Gap of Dunloe near Killarney, of Macgillacudy’s Rocks,
Mangerton, and the whole range of mountains extending thence to the eastward
should be attached ; but finding similar green and gray quartzites associated with
‘ the beds in which Silurian fossils occur in the Dingle Peninsula, and also in the
Pgounty of Waterford, he thought it prudent provisionally to attach them to the Silu-
; eo but he hoped still to find fossils which would determine the difficulty.
. E
50 REPORT—1843.
On the occurrence of a Bed of Sand containing recent Marine Shells, on the
summit of a Granite Hill, on the coast of the county of Mayo. By Ricuarp
Grirritn, F.G.S., §c.
The peninsula called the Mullet of Erris, is situated to the west of Broad Haven
and Blacksod Harbour, on the north-western coast of the county of Mayo. Its length
is fifteen miles, breadth on the north five miles, and on the south two miles. e
northern portion presents some hills of moderate elevation, the most important being
Aughalasheen, which reaches the height of 434 feet. The central part of the penin-
sula, though not absolutely flat, is low and uninteresting, the principal elevation not
exceeding 120 feet, the average varying from twenty to sixty feet above the level of
the sea. At the southern extremity, the only striking elevation consists of Termon
Hill, whose summit is 342 feet above the level of the sea.
The rocks of which this peninsula is composed consist of quartzite, mica-slate,
metamorphic mica-slate, passing into gneiss, hornblende slate and granite. The
quartzite occurs at the northern extremity, and forms the conical hill of Augha-
lasheen. ‘The principal tract of mica-slate is situated to the north of the village
of Belmullet, to the south of which it exhibits a highly crystalline and metamorphic
structure, and the strata present alternations of gneiss with large crystals of felspar,
gneiss passing into hornblende slate, and sometimes porphyry ; the beds are not thick,
but frequently present a tortuous arrangement. The metamorphic strata extend to
the southward from the parallel of Belmullet to the south of Elly Bay, a distance of
seven miles, where mica-slate again commences, and continues to the base of Termon
Hill, which is composed of highly crystalline gray granite, arranged in very large
tabular masses, which affect a nearly horizontal position: some of these masses as-
sume arhomboidal form, others are slightly wedge-shaped, but neither in the external
aspect nor internal structure do they exhibit appearances of a stratiform arrangement ;
in fact they are precisely similar to the tabular-formed granite of Slieve Donard, and
other granite mountains in the county of Down.
On the shore at Portglash, at the north-western base of Termon Hill, there is a
very fine junction of the granite with metamorphic mica-slate passing into gneiss.
The division of the two rocks at the point of contact is quite clear and well-defined,
without the least appearance of gradation or passage of one rock into the other. In
some places the two rocks do not adhere, the gneissose rock being slightly distinte-
grated near the contact, in others angular fragments of the schistose rock are en-
veloped in the granite. There are only a few small granite veins penetrating the
slate, which are composed of felspar, quartz and mica, with interspersed garnets,
which are abundant where the veins become narrow near the termination.
To the south of the junction the schistose rock forms a narrow band between
the granite and the sea, along the west coast for the distante of a mile and a half.
In some parts this metamorphic rock is much more crystalline than in others. Where
most crystalline, the rock is composed of felspar in small grains, with much black
mica, which is arranged in parallel layers, and the general structure of the rock is
stratiform, but the great lines of stratification are nearly obliterated; but this rock,
though it assumes a granitiform appearance, bears no resemblance to the true white —
granite close to it, or to the granite veins by which it is penetrated. ©
A considerable portion of the surface of the peninsula of the Mullet is covered by
a vast accumulation of white siliceous sand, containing a great number of recent
marine shells, and on the surface some land shells. The varieties found consist of
Purpura lapillus, Littorina rudis, Patella vulgaris, Cardium edule, Mytilus edulis,
Littorina littorea, Ostrea edulis, Pecten varians.
On the west coast of the centre of the peninsula, particularly to the north and
south of Elly Bay, the surface of the country is covered by this sand, which is re- —
gularly stratified in thin layers, and which forms considerable hills, varying in height
from fifty to eighty feet, the whole being formed of sand, without any admixture of
mud.
The marine shells are scattered throughout the mass, but appear to be most
abundant near the base.
In those positions where the sand has been blown away so as to form valleys
among the sand-hills, the surface is thickly strewed with both marine and Jand
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51
shells, so as to give the appearance of their being intermixed; but this is not really
the case, as on carefully examining the sections of the sand-hills no land shells were
found, though the marine, particularly the Patella vulgaris, were abundant, so that
Wwe must consider that the land shells were merely superficial, and that the animals
originally inclosed within them lived among the tufts of Arundo arenaria, with which
the greater part of the surface is covered.
f The sand and sand-hills just mentioned are not confined to the low country along
_ the sea shore, for some occur on the sides and within a few feet of the summit of
the granite hill of Termon, at the elevation of 320 feet above the level of the sea,
4 This sand, which in some places is more than fifteen feet in thickness, contains in
; abundance all the marine shells already enumerated, together with land shells at the
surface, as in the lower sand-hills near the level of the sea.
s These elevated sand-hills also present valleys between them, similar to, though on a
smaller scale than those on the lower bed; the surface of the sand, and sometimes
__ the bare granite rock, is covered by marine shells, which show that the wind, which
has the power of blowing away the sand, has not been able to remove the shells.
Hence we must conclude that the sand and marine shells once formed the bed of the
ocean, and that the whole has been elevated to its present position by the protrusion
of the granite; and if this be admitted, it becomes evident that the granite has been
protruded, or at least elevated, within the period of recent shells. ~
On some Geological Phenomena in the vicinity of Cork.
By Francis Jennines, F.G.S., M.RJI.A.
_ The author first alluded to the proof of the elevation of strata as evidenced by the
beds of Ostrea edulis, in some cases plentifully intermixed with Littorina littorea.
- Some of these beds were of considerable extent and depth; in one of them the shells
were broken, and appeared as if they had been subjected to the action of waves on the
sea-shore, whilst those on another bed were in many cases in pairs, and something
resembling the dried animal appeared within.
On many parts of the coasts of the counties of Cork and Waterford there are evi-
_ dent proofs of the land having subsided ; peat and bogwood being dug out of the
strands at the edge of the water during ebb-tide, and every storm washing large
trunks of trees on the beach, which in some places are visible in situ below the low-
est water of low tides; the oak, hazel, and birch being the most abundant.
The universal opinion of the people on these coasts is, that the sea is advancing ;
and old accounts of these places confirm this opinion, and render it probable that
the land at the present time is subsiding in some of those districts alluded to. The
- cliffs are formed of clay, large portions of which are constantly detached, and the
~ immense quantities of sea sand removed for agricultural purposes must render more
_ easy the adyance of the sea on the level ground bounded by those clay cliffs, the land
behind them being in most cases peat bog. The amount of sand removed in a
year from Youghal harbour amounts to about 279,000 tons, from Cork harbour to
about 400,000 tons, and from Kinsale and Oyster haven 330,000 tons; and this
annual drain must effect ere long very important changes, especially where the sand is
_ faised from the beach, as at Youghal, In the other places alluded toit is all dredged
__ from a depth varying from ten to about forty feet, and in many bays which formerly
__ yielded sand in abundance there is now but little if any to be found; which probably
x yb explained by the quantity taken for agricultural purposes.
____ Much of this sea sand contains from 60 to 65 per cent. of carbonate of lime, and
iy some of phosphate, principally derived from the shells of the Crustacea; it also con-
tains some animal matter from the living mollusca with which it abounds.
The amount of sand raised must also have an important effect upon commerce, in
__ keeping clear those harbours where sand is thrown in such quantities as to impede
_ the navigation ; the sand thus raised by dredging is sold, after a water carriage of
_ Six miles, for 6d. per ton, a price, when the labour is considered, remarkably low,
Beer" Sot
_ On some Beds of Limestone in the Valley of Cork. By C. Y. Hatnzs, M.D,
This outlying portion of the carboniferous system is described as consisting of three
_ thin beds of ferruginous limestone, interstratified with carboniferous slate and yellow
_ Sandstone, forming part of a series underlying the limestone of the Cork valley : it is
E2
es
52 REPORT—1843.
situate at Riverstown, and crops out at the summit of an anticlinal elevation; the
limestone and slate contain Encrinites, Turbinoliz, Spirifers, &c. Dr. Haines also
exhibited some rare and undescribed fossils from the Cork limestone, and a slab of
millstone grit from Kilrush, County Clare, containing some new and extraordinary
impressions, apparently of a marine Annelid, slightly resembling a species of Myria-
e figured in Mr. Murchison’s ‘ Silurian System,’ as occurring in the Cambrian
slates.
The “Permian System” as applied to Germany, with collateral observations ou
similar Deposits in other countries ; showing that the Rothe-todte-liegende,
Kupfer-schiefer, Zechstein, and the lower portion of the Bunter-sandstein,
form one natural group, and constitute the Upper Member of the Paleo-
zoic Rocks. By Roprerick Impry Murcuison, Gen. Sec. B.A. and Pres.
of the Royal Geogr. Soc.
When first proposed by Mr. Murchison*, the word Permian was intended to
distinguish a natural group of deposits lying between the well-known carboniferous
strata beneath and the less perfectly defined trias above it. The author at first sug-
gested that the group (so designated, from the ancient kingdom of Permia which is
exclusively occupied by it) should combine those deposits known under the names of
Rothe-todte-liegende (lower new red of England), Kupfer-schiefer, and Zechstein,
&c. (magnesian limestone, &c.). Subsequently, however, he was disposed to doubt
whether it might not be more correct to class the rothe-todte-liegende with the coal-
bearing deposits beneath it, than with the zechstein or magnesian limestone above
it, in consequence of a belief on the part of some geologists, that the plants of the
lower red sandstone which overlie the coal in many parts of England could not be
distinguished from those of the coal-measures. Revisiting Hessia, Saxony, Silesia,
the Thuringerwald and other parts of Germany, during this spring and summer, Mr.
Murchison has obtained what he considers to be satisfactory proofs that the rothe-
todte-liegende is part and parcel of the same natural group as the zechstein, and
must therefore be considered a member of the Permian system. He has also con-
vinced himself that a reform is called for in defining the lower limits of the “ Trias ”
of foreign geologists ; and being confident that his researches, and those of his com-
panions in Russia (M. de Verneuil and Count Keyserling), have afforded a key to
the solution of this question, which had not been previously obtained, he takes this
occasion of the meeting of the British Association to suggest, that the great deposit
hitherto known under the synonymous terms of Bunter-sandstein, Grés bigarré,
or new red sandstone, should be divided into two parts, the lower of which ought
to be classed with the Permian, and separated from the trias, with which it has
been merged.
To prove the first of these positions, or that the rothe-todte-liegende is a part of the
Permian group, Mr. Murchison cited the order of succession, and numerous sections in
Germany, showing an uninterrupted sequence from the lower red conglomerate sand-
stone and shale into the overlying zechstein. It was then stated, that this red de-
posit, so copiously developed in Saxony, was there invariably separated in the
clearest manner from the underlying coal-fields with which it is in contact, either by
being positively discordant with or transgressive to the edges of such coal beds, or
by occupying irregular and eroded depressions upon their surface. These facts have
recently induced the Saxon geologists, including Professor Naumann, to disconnect
the rothe-todte-liegende and the productive coal-measures, though formerly they
were supposed to be connected. On the other hand, the rothe-todte-liegende, or
lower new red, passes up into the zechstein. The question then is, can the plants
of this lower red rock be distinguished as a whole from those of the subjacent coal-
measures—plants being as yet the only organic remains found in these red sand-
stones ?
From his own observations in Saxony, and particularly from an inspection of the
fossil plants collected, and in part described, by an active geologist Captain Gutbier
of Zwickau, Mr. Murchison believes, that such a separation is indicated in nature.
For, although the general character of the flora of the one deposit agrees with that
of the other, it is a remarkable fact, that in the tracts around Zwickau, which are
* See Letter from Moscow, September 1841, Phil. Mag. vol, xix. p, 419,
oA eo ees ee aaa a
LoS beeen
4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53
marvellously rich in coal plants, certain striking forms are found in the rothe-todte-
liegende which have never been detected in the subjacent coal strata. Among these
are forms of Neuropteris closely approaching to, if not identical with, species which
occur in the Permian rocks, and with this similarity there is no trace of the common
plants of the underlying coal (Stigmaria ficoides, &c.). These plants being imbedded in
a whitish or cream-coloured, finely levigated claystone, and their leaves being brought
into beautiful relief by being as green as if they had been successfully dried in a her-
barium, form admirable subjects for the most precise distinctions of the fossil bota-
nist, and, through the kindness of his Saxon friends, Mr. Murchison hopes to be able
to lay some examples of them before the Geological Society of London.
In Silesia (at Ruppersdorf, and other localities west of Waldenburg, between
Breslau and Glatz) there is a fine development of strata from the base of the rothe-
todte-liegende, where that deposit equally overlies a productive coal-field, there based
upon true mountain limestone, and passes up into other red sandstones and shales
which have a marked aspect, from being interlaced with bands of black, bituminous,
thin, flaggy limestone. Though doubts had been entertained as to the age of this lime-
stone; Mr. Murchison does not hesitate to consider it the equivalent of the zechstein,
and the whole red group of which it forms a member, as the Permian system ; for
besides its very clear position, this calcareous flagstone contains plants and fishes
similar to those of the Permian rocks of Russia. Among the former the Newrop-
teris conferta, nov. sp., of the distinguished botanist Goppert, has been identified
with one of the most common forms brought from Russia. The most abundant fish
is the Paleoniscus Vratislabiensis, Ag.*
On this occasion Mr. Murchison passed rapidly over the zoological proofs that
the zechstein and kupfer-schiefer of Germany are the equivalents of the calcareous
beds of the Permian system of Russia, as these have been spoken of in memoirs read
before the Geological Society, and will shortly appear at length in a work upon the
geology of Russia. On this point, however, he begged to take the opportunity of
publicly stating, that his opinion was now perfectly in harmony with that of his dis-
tinguished friend Professor Phillips, viz. that the fauna of the zechstein, or mag-
nesian limestone, has to so great an extent the same general zoological type as the
carboniferous limestone, that it must jalso form a part of the paleoxoic series. Mr.
Murchison formerly withheld his assent to this opinion because the rock in question
contained Saurians,—animals unknown in the lower palozoic deposits—and also
because the zechstein or magnesian limestone seemed to him to be more naturally
connected with the strata overlying it, than with the underlying carboniferous system.
On the latter point Mr. Murchison called the attention of the Section to the fact, that
the examination of Russia had established what was previously unknown, viz. that
considerable masses of red sandstone, marls and conglomerate overlying bands of lime-
stone with unequivocal zechstein or magnesian fossils, contained, nevertheless, the same
group of plants and fishes as was associated with the underlying beds, and also peculiar
Thecodont Saurians, which Professor Owen has pronounced to be similar to those
of our magnesian limestone, or to the Protorosaurus of Germany. What then
was to be done with this great overlying mass, occupying exactly the same place in
the series, and often closely resembling, in mineral character, the lower half of the
bunter-sandstein? The answer is, that as the old line of demarcation, which included
all this mass in the trias, was founded solely on lithological aspect, so must it bend
to the new evidences, be grouped with the zechstein, and under the name of Per-
mian, be considered as the upper member of the palzozoic series.
Mr. Murchison postponed his announcement of this view until he had ascertained,
whether the natural sections in any part of Germany afforded data to contradict it.
But his recent excursion enables him to say, that neither in Hessia, nor in Saxony,
nor in the Thuringerwald, the countries where the zechstein and kupfer-schiefer are
most fully developed, do the red rocks which form their roof contain any animal
remains whatever, and all the German professors to whom he has referred are
ignorant of such. The truth is, that the upper mass only of the bunter-sandstein
is that which contains remains of animals and plants analogous to those of the
‘muschelkalk which rests upon it. Such beds, for example, are those of Soulz-les-
bains, near Strasbourg, and of Buberhausen, near Deux-ponts ; whilst the upper
_ * In his ‘ Poissons Fossiles’ M. Agassiz has been misinformed, when he terms this deposit
carboniferous. -
54 REPORT—1843.
red sandstone of the Vosges, from whence MM. Mongeot and Schimper have de-
scribed their flora of the Grés bigarré (quite distinct from the “‘ Grés de Vosges,”
which is probably Permian), occurs in a region where no zechstein exists, and
where, therefore, the lower limit of the trias cannot be neatly defined. Again, the
beds of sandstone with impressions of the feet of Cheirotherium are all of them (as
far as evidences can be obtained) at very little depth beneath the muschelkalk, and
may therefore, like the strata of Soulz-les-bains, be most naturally linked on to
that deposit. Descend, however, from that horizon through the vast underlying
masses which separate it from the zechstein (by far the greater portion of the so-
called bunter-sandstein), and no animal organic remains have been found with which
the author is acquainted, and hence Mr. Murchison contends, that rocks perfectly
representing such lower portion of the bunter-sandstein having been found in Russia
to contain the same group of fossils as the other and lower strata of the Permian
rocks, must henceforth be separated from the trias and secondary rocks, and grouped
with the palozoic strata.
In support of this view Mr. Murchison read an extract of a letter from Professor
Naumann of Leipsig, in reply to his proposed classification, which admits, that
there is no evidence in Germany to set against such an arrangement.
In the course of his illustration of this subject Mr. Murchison gave a brief account
of other natural sections in Western Germany (as at Baden and Heidelberg), where
great masses of the rothe-todte-liegende, resting upon and made up of the primary
and crystalline rocks of the Black Forest, were seen to pass up into the lower masses
of the bunter-sandstein, usually without any dividing course of zechstein, though at
Heidelberg that rock, as on the frontiers of France, is supposed to be represented by
a thin band of dolomite.
With regard to the plants of the Permian system brought from Russia, it appears,
from the last opinions of M. Adolphe Brongniart, to whom they had been referred,
that though they have a peculiar character, they are, for the most part, closely allied
to carboniferous forms,—a fact, it is to be observed, which is not only quite in uni-
son with what has been stated in this memoir respecting the plants of the rothe-
todte-liegende of Saxony, but is also in complete harmony with the conclusions
derived from a study of the Producti, Avicule, Corals and Ichthyolites, all of which
are linked on to their congeners of the carboniferous fauna. Mr. Murchison begged
the Section to remember, that the Russian plants having this decided paleoxoic cast,
and associated with Paleothrissi and Protosaurians, occur chiefly in bands of marl,
conglomerate, &c., overlying the limestones with typical zechstein fossils; and this,
he observed, was not merely true in a small district, but over an enormous area, in
which the strata had never been disturbed by any protrusion of rocks of igneous
origin, and in which they were therefore very much in their pristine condition.
In conclusion, Mr. Murchison offered a few remarks on the extent to which the
beds of this portion of the British series described by Professor Sedgwick and other
authors, might be considered to range under the synonym of Permian*. Speaking
in a practical point of view, as respected geological mapping he observed, that by
grouping the lower new red with the magnesian limestone, a well-defined breadth
of formation was obtained to separate many coal-fields from the younger deposits
of red sandstone and marl by which they are flanked; and as the magnesian lime-
stone does not, in many instances, appear in the form of a distinct calcareous de-
posit, but only as a partial conglomerate, so was it the more desirable to givea
certain latitude to this group, and not define it too narrowly by mere mineral
characters. Thus considered, Mr. Murchison believed that the Permian system had
a real existence even in Ireland; for although true magnesian limestone was un-
known in that country, yet, to him it appeared highly probable that the red sand-
stone loaded with fishes (Paleoniscus catopterus, Ag.), at Rhone Hill, near Dun-
gannon, and which he had formerly described as immediately surmounting carboni-
ferous tracts, was in fact a true portion of the Permian rocks, and not of the new red
sandstone, as he had supposed.
* Since this memoir was read, Mr. Murchison has practically applied the term Permian, in
a new small general Geological Map of England, published under the auspices of the Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. With his associates, M. de Verneuil and Count Key-
-serling, he has also prepared a tabular view of the Permian fauna, which consists of nearly —
170 species. This will appear in the work entitled ‘ Russia and the Ural Mountains.’
ss
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55
On the important additions recently made to the Fossil Contents of the Ter=
trary and Alluvial Basin of the Middle Rhine. By Ropuricx Impey Mur-
cntson, Gen. Sec. B.A. and Pres. of the Royal Geogr. Soc.
After a sketch of the geographical limits and geological relations of the tertiary
deposits which occupy the valley of the rivers Rhine and Mayn around the towns of
Mayence, Frankfort and Darmstadt, and a brief allusion to the descriptions of this
tract by M. Klipstein and Mr. Lyell, Mr. Murchison gave an account of the recent
discoveries of three German naturalists, who have been making such additions to
the hitherto known fauna of this basin, as involve considerable modification of for-
mer opinions respecting the period of its accumulation. In speaking of M. H. von
Meyer’s unabated exertions, it was announced that he had prepared drawings of
various fossil vertebrata in Germany, sufficient to fill upwards of 300 folio plates,
with long and elaborate descriptions of the same. To obtain some acquaintance
with these important results, Mr. Murchison begged his countrymen to consult the
valuable periodical of Leonhardt and Bronn, too little read, he regretted to say, in
the British Isles. Of the animals in the tertiary basin under consideration, M. H.
von Meyer has catalogued and prepared for publication—mammifera 68 species,
including a new genus, Acanthodon; reptiles 30; birds 13; frogs 8. These crea-
tures are nearly all of undescribed forms, generally of small and sometimes of very
minute dimensions—one of the birds being less than the most diminutive existing
humming-bird, and therefore the very antipode of the great Dinornis of Owen*.
M. Kaup of Darmstadt, so well known as the discoverer of the Deinotherium and
numerous other vertebrata in the deposits around that city, has made some very
curious additions to his list, most of which are appearing, as fast as his limited
means will permit, in the large and splendid work which he publishes in folio fasci-
culi—a work which Mr. Murchison lamented had not met with sufficient encourage-
ment to repay the devotion and outlay of the author.
Among the new animals, the Chalicotherium Goldfussit was instanced as a genus
approaching on the one hand to Anoplotherium, and on the other to Lophiodon; as
also the Hippotherium or extinct fossil Horse, &c. &c.
In examining the remains of Rhinoceros, Stag and Tapir, sometimes very perfect,
which occur in this deposit, M. Kaup has convinced himself, that they have a close
affinity to the types of the Indian and Sumatran Archipelago, and are entirely distinct
from all known European mammalia. M. Kaup has also collected a very perfect
series of teeth of Mastodons, at different ages of growth, which completely support
and confirm the views of Prof. Owen, in proving that the Tetracaulodon, Missourium,
&c. of American authors are true Mastodons.
Of the Invertebrata of this tertiary basin, M. Alexander Braun of Karlsruhe gave
an account at a late meeting of the German naturalists held at Mayence ; but as his
memoir has not yet been published, and the author communicated some results to Mr.
Murchison, the latter deems it important that geologists should be made generally
acquainted with them through the volumes of the British Association. They consist of
Marine contents. Terrestrial and Freshwater.
Corals... cccaieded $95. RELTCSEVIAL SHEIS! 04's cnspinnndeneeyannce . 75
Radiaria.... 18 1 Foraminifers ...... 12 | Freshwater shells ..........sc0eseeesseeee 28
Echinoderms ..... hie —_—~
Brachiopods ....., 1 Totals dhinsces -103
Mollusca ...303 | Aceh vaatee 87 | of which 10 species only are identical
Gasteropods ...... 215 | with living forms.
Crustaceans........ 9
Articulata... 16 ' Insects... ....sesseeee 2 General total ........ 450
Vermes or Serpula 5
"LOtal,s-cacnce 337
Among the numerous shells (and M. A. Braun has in many cases compared hun-
dreds of individuals of each species) there are some which approach closely in form
* See M. von Meyer’s letters to Professor Bronn of Heidelberg.
56 REPORT—1843.
to the remains of the calcaire grossier of Paris; and on the whole, judging also from
the ancient appearance of the terrestrial fauna, he is disposed to consider this basin
of an early tertiary age. M. Herman von Meyer, drawing his conclusions from the
vertebrata (the numerous fishes have not yet however been described), refers the de-
posit to the age of the molasse and gypsum beds of Paris. The latter idea seems to
be strongly sustained by the existence of the Anthracotherium, and of an animal
between the Anoplotherium and Palzotherium of the Paris basin.
However much surprise may be excited by the announcement, that the accumu-
lations containing the gigantic Deinotherium form the uppermost part of the Eocene
group of Lyell, Mr. Murchison considers the inference to be strengthened by the
fact, that these beds rest upon the oldest brown coal and sand of Northern Germany,
which near Mecklenburg has been found to contain concretions charged with marine
remains, which, according to Count Miinster and M.von Buch, belong to the calcaire
grossier, or London clay. Mr. Murchison expressed therefore his belief, that the
great mass of the tertiary basin of the Rhine would be found to be-of the same age
as the gypsum beds of Montmartre, or of the Ryde and Binsted strata of the Isle of
Wight.
Ancient Alluvia.—This basin is surmounted in ascending order by—lIst, coarse
gravel, the materials of which have been derived from the adjacent mountains, and
this by sand andldss. In the two latter, and in certain tufaceous beds, M.A. Braun
and Professor Walchner of Karlsruhe have collected 96 species of shells, 56 of which
are terrestrial and 40 fluviatile: of these 7 belong distinctly to species now living,
and 9 others very closely approach to, or are varieties of, other living forms. The
most abundant forms in the loss are with one exception very rare in a living state in
the adjacent cultivated tracts, and the common species of such districts are of unfrequent
occurrence in the loss.
With these shells are associated the remains of Mammoth, Rhinoceros tichorhinus,
and other extinct mammals, the bones of which have evidently undergone very little
rolling or destruction; it being not uncommon (as at the mouth of the valley of
Baden-Baden) to detect most of the bones of an entire animal near each other.
From the composition of the drift and léss of the valley of the Rhine, and from the
state of preservation both of the bones, and of the delicate land and fluviatile shells
with which they are associated, Mr. Murchison infers, that in this region, as in the
valleys of the Vistula in Poland, and enormous tracts throughout Russia and upon
the Siberian flanks of the Ural, the superficial deposits containing these remains have
been formed by comparatively tranquil operations, and that the great Mammalia in-
habited tracts immediately adjacent to the spots where they are now entombed.
On the Fossils of Polperro in Cornwall. By C. W. Pracu.
Some time ago the author received from the Messrs. Couch, surgeons of Polperro,
in a letter, two or three small portions of what they considered coral, but which Mr.
Peach regarded as bone, and probably fish-bone.
On the 20th of June last the author found that the fossils in question formed a
large and extensive fish-bone bed, east and west of Polperro, containing immense quan-
tities of portions of the Cephalaspis and Onchus of the Old Red Sandstone; also a few
other indistinct and ill-defined shells, with portions of the skin or shagreen of Spha-
godus, of the Upper Ludlow rock, all described in Mr. Murchison’s ‘ Silurian Re-
mains,’ with other fragments not mentioned. - [Specimens were exhibited from that
spot.] They are generally on the under side of the rocks. These are the rocks de-
scribed in the fifth volume of the ‘ Geological Transactions,’ with ‘the transverse
fracture,”’ which latter circumstance renders it a difficult matter to get out the speci-
mens perfect.
In Giggan Cove, Polperro, there is a large run of limestone, in which Goniatites,
&c. are found: it runs along the coast east, and may be traced over Talland sand, to
the rocks opposite the ‘‘ ore stone.”
Mr. Peach has found a few and indistinct specimens of fish-bones from the Grib-
bon along the coast to Mellendreth, two miles east of Looe. The Fowey fish rocks
have the ‘‘ transverse fracture,”
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5q
The author is engaged in making out a list of the organic remains of Cornwall,
which he has found, and are now in his possession.
The author has found a conglomerate in Gorran, in which are large rolled masses
of limestone inclosing Orthoceratites, Crinoidea and corals, as well as detached corals
in the softer parts.
A large specimen was exhibited from the quartz rock of Great Peraver Goran. It is
rather abundant there, and covers the sides of some of the blocks four or five feet over:
some of the tubes are more than a foot in depth: it appears to be very much like the
Sabellaria alveolata (recent) in its habit. The upper part of the tubes is funnel-shaped
and filled with clay-slate: it is also found sparingly in the quartz rock of Caerhayes
and Gerrans Bay. Generally they are much distorted.
On the Granite and other Volcanic Rocks of Lundy Island.
By the Rev. D. Wituams, F.G.S.
Mr. Williams described this island as a mass of gray granite, three miles long by
about half a mile wide, flanked at its south-east angle by slate rocks, which, beyond
the immediate influence of the granite, had an east and west strike, and extended for
about half a mile. The circumstances attending the granite were altogether unlike
those of any granite mass of Devon or Cornwall. The usually abundant evidences
of the processes by which the bounding rocks had been reduced and converted into
granite in the vast volcanic laboratories, were all absent, He could not discover a
vestige of a granite vein, nor could he observe anywhere a trace of gneiss, mica, or
chiastolite slate. In Devon and Cornwall he had often observed that the mineral
characters of granite, especially in the veins, varied with the lithological constitution
of the sedimentary or other rocks, out of which it had been derived, and with which
it was so intimately associated. Besides, the incorporation, the welding, as it were,
of the granite in veins with the sedimentary rock, was commonly so perfect that it
was altogether impossible to separate them. Now at Lundy Island, although he had
repeatedly tried at several visits, he never had succeeded in detaching a specimen of
slate united with either the granite, trap, or porphyry, though it was considerably
indurated and altered by them, and otherwise in precisely the same condition as the
slates in Cornwall. He proposed, in reference to the agency of heat on rocks con-
tiguous to igneous masses, to distinguish between active and inert heat—the former
exerted in reducing the minerals to fluids, the latter simply indurating and otherwise __
partially altering them. The junctions of the slate and granite at Lundy, which
were very clearly exposed on the north-east and the south-west, evidenced nothing
more than the operation of inert heat: the granite there was manifestly older than
the slates, the slates were older than the traps, and the traps which traversed slate
and granite were older than the porphyries, which cut off and shifted the traps.
On the Geology of Corfu. By Captain Porrtock.
Extract from a letter to Professor Phillips, dated July 9, 1843 :—‘‘ The secondary
limestone here is remarkable: some of it has strongly the aspect of our Irish
hardened chalk, and abounds in flints; but other portions resemble some of the
varieties of Irish mountain limestone. Fossils are not abundant; but I have obtained
two species of Terebratula from the little fortified island of Ordo, close to us, and
they appear to resemble cretaceous species,—certainly not mountain limestone,—
though Dr. Davy in his description of these islands seems to consider it the latter.
By the autumn I hope to settle this question completely, which will decide the age
also of a remarkable conglomerate, containing pebbles of the limestone and flint, and
probably tertiary, though called secondary by Dr. Davy.”
On the Phenomena and Theory of Earthquakes, and the explanation they
afford of certain facts in Geological Dynamics. By H. D. Rocerrs, Pro-
Sessor of Geology in the University of Pennsylvama, and W. b. Rocrrs,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Virginia.
This communication was prefaced by a recapitulation by Mr. Lyell of Messrs.
Rogers’s observations on the structure of the Appalachian chain of mountains [See
nd
58 REPORT—1843.
Report for 1842]. The authors first proceed to examine the phenomena attending
earthquakes, commencing with the following propositions :—1. Earthquakes consist
essentially of a wave-like motion of the whole solid ground; 2. the earthquake un-
dulation is not simultaneous throughout the whole area agitated, but is progressive,
and propagated with enormous velocity ; 3. the undulation is transmitted sometimes
in the manner of an elongated, curved, or nearly straight belt, moving parallel to
itself, and sometimes in the manner of a dilating elliptic or circular zone. The authors
then describe earthquake phenomena as divisible into such as are of invariable occur-
rence, and therefore characteristic, and such as are only occasionally witnessed. The
characteristic phenomena consist, as announced by the Rev. John Mitchell of Cam-
bridge, in the Phil. Trans. for 1760, of a peculiarly rapid wndulation, or wave-like
motion of the ground, and a sharp vibratory jar, or ¢remor ; the undulation generally
extending further from the source of the earthquake than the tremor. The occasional
phenomena, observable only when the earthquake is violent, are a deep rumbling and
grating noise, an alternate opening and closing of parallel fissures, and the escape of
steam and sulphureous and other vapours, and hot water, from those fissures. In
confirmation of these observations, the authors cite the earthquake of Conception, in
1835, described by Captain Fitzroy, and that which visited the island of Hayti in
May 1842. As examples of the second proposition, they mention the earthquake of
Lisbon, and two others which have occurred during the present year. The first of
these took place on the 4th of January, and was felt along the valley of the Missis-
sippi, from the military posts on the frontier west of that river, to the coast of Georgia,
and from 31° N. lat. to Iowa, a distance of about 800 miles in each direction; it
occurred about 9 P.m., and was sufficiently violent to excite some alarm; throughout
the region agitated the motion was both undulating and vibratory. From a compa-
rison of the dates of the shock at twenty-seven different localities, it appears to have
been simultaneous along a certain line, stretching ina N.N.E. direction from the”
western margin of Alabama to Cincinnati, a length of more than 500 miles; it was
also synchronous along other lines parallel to this; places to the westward experienced
the shock earlier than the other localities, the intervals being in proportion to the
distance. From these facts the authors infer “that the area agitated at a given in-
stant was linear, and that the earthquakes moved from W.N.W. to E.S.E. in the man-
ner of an advancing wave.”’ The velocity with which the shock was propagated appears
to have exceeded thirty miles per minute. The second, or Guadaloupe earthquake,
was felt along the Windward Islands, at Demerara, and Guiana, Bermuda, and most
of the principal cities of the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, from Savannah to
New York. Its range, in latitude, amounted to 35°, and in longitude to 23°: the
longest diameter of this elliptical area extending from Demerara to New York, was
about 2300 geographical miles; and its breadth, from Bermuda to Savannah, 770
miles. The principal intensity of the disturbance was confined to a nearly north and
south line, or belt, embracing St.Vincent’s, St. Lucia, Martinique, Dominica, Guada-
loupe, and Antigua; and thence prolonged to the continent of South America, and to
Bermuda. Along this curved axis the shock was simultaneous; and from a com-
parison of observations made at other stations, it appears to have been propagated
eastward and westward at the rate of twenty-seven miles per minute.
In the second part of their communication the authors propose a theory of the ori-
gin and movement of earthquakes, as applied by them in explanation of the structure
of the Appalachian Mountains. According to this theory, the wave-like motion of
the earth’s surface during an earthquake is of the nature of an “actual billowy pul-
sation in the molten matter,” upon which they suppose the crust of the earth floats,
«©engendered by a linear or focal disruption and immediate collapse of the crust,
accompanied by the explosive escape of highly elastic vapour.”’ The progressive waves
of oscillation thus developed on each side of the axis of disturbance, would move off
in parallel order, and form dilating elliptic zones. Supposing the earth’s crust to be
ruptured only at a focal point, as in the orifice of a volcano, the receding pulsations
would be approximately circular ; whereas, if the line of fracture were greatly elon-
gated, and the pulsations observed but on one side, the advancing belt of waves would
appear straight.
The sea-waves caused by earthquakes are described as broad undulations of the water,
moving in the same direction with the pulsation of the crust beneath, at the rate of
a =.
pea Gl fre Se
ee owed
Rips
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59
three and a half miles per minute in the case of the New England earthquake of 1756;
and at the rate of five miles per minute during the great Lisbon earthquake, the waves
succeeding each other at regular intervals of five minutes. Assuming these sea-waves
to correspond with the undulations beneath, the authors calculate the breadth of the
crust-waves in the Lisbon earthquake at twenty-five miles; and in the earthquake of
Conception, where the undulations averaged four per minute, and travelled forward
at the rate of forty-two miles in the same time, each wave possessed a breadth of at
least ten geographical miles. The tremor attending earthquakes is considered as the
effect of the crushing of the strata during, and caused by, the undulations, rather than
as the result of waves of vibration, which would be dispersed and destroyed by the
broken condition of the materials and their heterogeneous composition.
Application of the theory of earthquakes.—From these considerations the authors
infer, that when earthquakes produce any permanent elevation or depression of the
land, the tracts so affected will generally have the shape of elongated parallel belts,
as exemplified in the Ullah Bund in the Delta of the Indus, the elevation of the coast
of Chili, and the local arching of the surface across the bed of a river in Chili, men-
tioned by Darwin. Referring to their memoir on the Appalachian chain, the authors
contend that the structure of those mountains (and, by analogy, those of other coun-
tries) implies the operation of far greater and more sudden forces than the gentle
secular changes observed in modern times; and they consider it impossible to avoid
the conclusion, that all the more extensive revolutions of the earth’s crust have in-
yolyed, to a greater or less extent, the agency of vast earthquake waves. To the action
of these waves, in different geological epochs, they attribute the formation of the vast
masses of conglomerate and detrital deposits distributed in the various groups of
strata; also the transport of the great northern drift, and the polished and furrowed
surfaces of rocks both in Europe and New England.
An Account of the late Earthquake at the Islands of Antigua and Guadaloupe,
on the 8th of February 1843, By the Hon. Capt. Carnecte.
The earthquake is described by the author of the communication as having been
telt, generally, among the Leeward Islands, but more particularly at Antigua and Gua-
daloupe. At both these islands the shock took place at twenty minutes before eleven
o’clock, a.M., and it does not appear to have been preceded by any of the usual signs
of earthquake; the weather was clear and fine, the sea-breeze blowing as usual, and
the inhabitants engaged in their daily avocations. At Antigua the earth heaved and
undulated suddenly ; the hills oscillated, and huge masses of rock were detached from
their summits and precipitated into the valleys; large fissures opened in the ground
and closed immediately. The water in the harbour whirled round and round, enve-
loping the islands in a cloud of dust, which shut them from view, and in the space
of two minutes and a half all Antigua was laid in ruins. In this island only eight
persons lost their lives, owing to the black population being employed, as usual, among
the canes, but the loss of property was immense. At Point-a-Pitre, in the island of
Guadaloupe, the effects were much more fearful. In magnitude, this was the second
town in the West India islands; it was situated upon a piece of low ground, sur-
rounded on three sides by the sea, and entirely built of stone to avoid the effect of
hurricanes. At the time of the earthquake, most of the inhabitants appear to have
been at their late breakfast, in consequence of which 4000 perished among the fall-
ing houses or in the fire which broke out immediately after; the destruction of the
whole town was so complete, as to present, after the earthquake, the appearance of
a vast stone quarry. The Jandslips were very numerous, and all the springs in the
vicinity of Point-a-Pitre were instantly dried up. The shock was felt slightly as far
north as Washington and Bermuda, and southward to Demerara, travelling in a
N.N.E. and S.S.E. direction ; several slight shocks were subsequently felt at differ-
ent periods.
On the apparent fall or diminution of Water in the Baltic, and elevation of the
Scandinavian Coast. By Major N. L. Bzamisu, F.R.S.
During a journey to Stockholm in the early part of the present summer, the author
had occasion to see and hear much respecting the diminution of water in the Baltic,
60 REPORT—1843.
a practical and personal evidence of which he experienced in the harbour of Trave-
munde, on the 4th of May, by the sudden fall of water at the port, which took place
very rapidly and to a great extent. The steamer, which ought to have left Trave-
mund on the 18th, was detained by this cause until the 21st. It is well known, that
althongh without tide, the Baltic is subject to periodical variations of depth, but the
water has fallen during the present summer to a degree far below these ordinary
variations : and the fact was considered so remarkable, as to be thought worthy of
being brought before the notice of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, by Baron Ber-
zelius, in July last. This fall or diminution of water was already perceptible in the
summer of 1842, since which the Baltic has never returned to its average mean
height; but, on the contrary, has diminished, and there seems now no probability
that the former level, or the height of 1841, will be again attained. Meantime, no
perceptible change has taken place in the waters of the North Sea, and the unscien-
tific observer asks, what has become of the waters of the Baltic? The answer is
probably to be found in a simultaneous phenomenon apparent on the Swedish coast,
the gradual elevation of which has been satisfactorily proved by the personal obser-
vation of Mr. Lyell. Recent observation, however, would seem to show, that this
elevation does not proceed at any regular or fixed rate, but, if he might use the ex-
pression, jitfully, at uncertain periods, and at a rate far greater than was at first sup-
posed. At the same meeting, when Baron Berzelius drew the attention of the
Swedish Academy to the diminution of water in the Baltic, a communication was
made from an officer who had been employed on the south-west coast of Sweden, in
the Skargard of Bohuslan, north of Gottenburg, giving evidence of the recent eleva-
tion of that part of the coast, and stating, that during the present summer fishermen
had pointed out to him, near the Malostrom, at Oroust, shoals which had never before
been visible. The elevation of the Swedish coast forms a striking contrast with the
unchanged position of the contiguous coast of Norway, which, as far as observation
has been hitherto extended, has suffered no change within the period of history, al-
though marine deposits, found upon the Norwegian hills, at very considerable eleva-
tions above the level of the sea, prove that those parts were formerly submerged.
More accurate information, however, will, before long, be obtained on this interesting
point, as a commission has been appointed by the Norwegian government to investi-
gate the subject, and marks have been set up on the coast which will, in a few years,
afford the desired information. Meantime, the Scandinavian peninsula presents an
extraordinary phenomenon ; the western, or Norwegian side, remaining stationary,
while the south and east, or Swedish sides, are rising, and that, as the author had
endeavoured to show, at no inconsiderable rate.
On certain Movements in the Parts of Stratified Rocks.
By Prof. J, Purtures, F.R.S.
The author stated that for many years the attention of geologists had been called
in avery essential degree to the internal structure of rocks ; but notwithstanding the
advances made by Prof. Sedgwick and Mr. Hopkins, there were points still remain -
ing to be investigated, before mathematicians could explain the forces by which these
phenomena had been produced; because any such explanation must be based upon
data afforded by the actual constitution of the rocks themselves. Twenty years since
he had observed such remarkable symmetry in the crystalline forms of prismatic
masses of slate in Westmoreland, that he had measured their planes, and satisfied
himself that they were not of the nature of ordinary crystallization, and that the term,
crystalline structure, as usually applied to them, was by no means legitimate. In
order to understand the nature of the mechanical forces which have produced the
cleavage, it is important to study it in its relation to every form of strata. Con-
tortions which do not affect the cleavage planes, were evidently formed before
them ; the joints and fissures which interrupt the cleavage but do not disarrange it,
were probably posterior, like many of the faults which interrupt the strata and cut
off the cleavage. When layers of concretionary ironstone occur in slaty rocks, the
cleavage planes are arrested and “troubled” in their passage through them, from
which it appears that the nodules had become solid previously to the strata being di-
* =i he >
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61
vided by the planes of cleavage. Several attempts had been made to imitate cleavage
structure. Mr. Fox of Cornwall, had caused electric currents to pass through moist-
ened clay, and had thus produced fissures parallel to the bounding surfaces of the
mass, and this illustration Mr. Phillips considered very important, but incomplete.
The cleavage planes of the slate-rocks of Wales were, he stated, always parallel to
the main direction of the great anticlinal axes, but were not affected by the small un-
dulations and contortions of those lines. In North Wales they maintained the same
direction for fifty miles, not varying more than two or three degrees, which might be
owing to local causes, such as the movement of masses by gravity at a period sub-
sequent to the formation of the cleavage. In making observations upon the cleavage
of rocks, care must be exercised not to confound with these phenomena the marks
produced by the mechanical movement of one mass of rock upon another. The layers of
shells in slaty rocks were generally distinctly marked by ferruginous lines, caused by
their decomposition, and the form of their outlines was often remarkably changed. ‘The
Leptenz in North Devon occasionally assumed the form of Nuculz, and the Spirifers
were crumpled up, or else extremely attenuated. The Trilobites of the Llandeilo flags
were found in three distinct forms, arising from the distortion taking place in a longi-
tudinal, transverse, or oblique direction ; this seemed to be the result of a “‘ creeping ””
movement of the particles of the rock along the planes of cleavage, the effect of which
was to roll them forward, in a direction always uniform, over the same tract of coun-
try: the movement does not seem to have affected the hard shells, but only those
which were thin, as also the Alge and Trilobites : the latter are covered with litile folds,
parallel to the wave of motion. In these distorted fossils the amount of movement
might be estimated ; as, in the space occupied by a trilobite, it amounts toa quarter
or even half an inch. Mr. Phillips had selected these facts, bearing the aspect of
real and general laws of structure in rocks, from a series of classed phenomena on the
subject, because he regarded them as positive steps towards a mechanical theory of the
series of changes by which the structural characters and accidents of position were to
be determined.
Notice of the Ordnance Geological Museum. By Prof. J. Putwuirs, F.R.S.
The Ordnance Geological Survey, now under the direction of Sir Henry De la Beche,
has for its object two purposes, both bearing on geological science. The first of these
is to procure an accurate delineation of the boundaries of all the strata; not laid down
conjecturally, but from actual observation and exact measurement. For this purpose
there is attached to the Trigonometrical Survey a staff of active geologists, who walk
over the boundary lines and draw sections, in which every part is measured and laid
down on a scale true to nature. The practice of making the vertical scale of sections
greater than the horizontal had led to much mischief and many mistakes, especially in
mining operations, and in working for coal. The second object was to form a collection
of the fossils of every stratum in every favourable locality, with the view to ascertain
the law of geographical distribution of species, and their geological distribution in
successive strata. It was usual for geologists to collect only fine and beautiful spe-
cimens ; but this method would never enable them to trace the exact areas of distri-
bution of organic life in former epochs. In connexion with this system of collecting
organic remains, a method of drawing them had been proposed: each species, as
soon as sufficient information could be procured, was to be drawn by good artists,
With magnified views of minute structure; and these were to be engraved on steel, a
separate plate being given to each species, and published at so low a price as to place
them within the reach of all persons interested in the science. Mr. Phillips invited
collectors of fossils to give their aid in forwarding this work, by lending specimens of
Tare or new fossils, and announced that in such cases electrotype impressions would
Gf approved) be taken of them, so as to supply museums and collectors with correct
representations of unique or valuable fossils. In conclusion, Mr. Phillips stated that
the Ordnance Museum would be eventually opened to the public as freely as any in-
stitution of the same nature.
62 REPORT—1843.
Letter from the Astronomer Royal to the Earl of Rossz. Communicated by
the Ear! of Rossz.
Birr Castle, 10th August, 1843.
My pear Lorp,—It is probable that the geological circumstance to which I am
about to call your attention has already been noticed by the geologists of Ireland;
but if it has not, perhaps you may consider it sufficiently important to be made the
subject of a communication to the Geological Section of the meeting shortly to assemble
under your lordship’s presidency at Cork.
The circumstance to which I allude is, the existence of numerous traces of glacier-
friction on the north-west side of Bantry Bay.
My own examination of that country has been confined to the two lines of road,
one from Glengariff to Ardagh and into the bosom of Hungry Hill, the other the road
from Glengariff to the pass leading to Kenmare. Near to both of these roads, marks
of the glaciers may be seen, but they are more numerous near the former, and espe-
cially before the road reaches its summit near the Sugar Loaf. The rock is a hard
and apparently indestructible greenstone slate, and the smallest scratches haye been
well preserved. Beyond the summit, the rock appears to be clay-slate; and though
the peculiar swelling form of the surface may still be seen, I do not think that any
scratches can be found. But in the hollow of Hungry Hill I saw one block (I do
not remember of what stone) on which the scratches were perfectly preserved.
I had previously visited the country in the neighbourhood of Scull and Crookhaven,
and had passed from it to Bantry. Although the rock is sufficiently exposed in this
tract, and appears to be indestructibly hard, I did not remark any traces of glacier
action. I have also passed to the north side of the hills dividing Kenmare from
Glengariff ; but in this tract the rock is not sufficiently exposed to make it probable
that glacier-traces can be seen.
I think it right to add, that I have seen the marks of glaciers in the Alpine valleys
close to the existing glaciers as well as at several miles’ distance from them, and that
I am perfectly familiar with their appearance. And I have no hesitation in pro-
nouncing on the certainty of those whose position I have indicated above.
I am, my dear Lord, your very faithful Servant,
The Earl of Rosse. G. B. Airy.
Illustration of the agency of Glaciers in transporting Rocks.
By Col. Sazine.
When the Antarctic Expedition had reached 78° S. lat. the vessels were stopped
by a barrier of ice, from 100 to 180 feet in height, and 300 miles in extent from east
to west; beyond these cliffs of ice a range of lofty mountains were visible about 60
miles distant, the westernmost of which appeared to be 12,000 feet in height. From
the face of these ice-cliffs masses were constantly breaking off and floating north-
ward, bearing with them fragments of rocks probably derived from the moun-
tains from which the glacier appeared to descend. In the latitude of 66° and 67°,
at a distance of 700 miles from the glacier, the ice formed a floating barrrier, through
which ships could with difficulty force their way. Over the intermediate area the
icebergs would be constantly strewing masses of rock and detritus, particularly at
their northern limit, where they would probably form mounds resembling terminal
glacial moraines. Colonel Sabine then described similar phenomena in Baffin’s Bay,
which he stated to be, in many parts, deeper than the thousand-fathom line, but
comparatively shallow at the strait which forms its entrance. The bay was surrounded
by alternate cliffs of rock and valleys occupied by glaciers, presenting cliffs of ice along
the shore, from which masses became detached, many of which floated off to the
zone of shallow water at the entrance of the bay, where they were arrested in their
progress, and deposited the fragments of granite, trap, and limestone containing
fossils, derived from different parts around the bay.
On the cause of the Motion of Glaciers. By Witt1am Hopkins, F.G.S.
De Saussure had adopted the theory which attributes this motion to the resolved
part of gravity acting along the inclined surfaces on which all glaciers in motion are
pA
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63
‘situate ; and he exp ained, also, how the motion would be facilitated by the effects
of the internal heat of the earth, and of subglacial currents. When the attention of
philosophers, however, was recalled a few years years ago to this subject, and more
accurate observations and admeasurements were made, the inclinations of the beds of
glaciers were found in many cases to be so small (in the glacier of the Aar, for
example, not exceeding three degrees), that it appeared extremely difficult to conceive
how the force of gravity alone could be adequate to overcome the friction on the
bottom and sides of the glacier, and the numerous local obstacles to its movement.
Numerous experiments on the descent of bodies along inclined planes had shown,
that when the surfaces of the bodies and planes were perfectly hard and polished, no
motion would ensue without an inclination considerably greater than that of many
glaciers ; and, moreover, that the inclination required to produce motion was inde-
pendent of the weight of the sliding body. These considerations led to the very
general rejection of De Saussure’s theory, and to the adoption, by many persons, of
the dilatation theory, of which M. Agassiz had been the principal advocate. According
to this theory, a part of the water produced by the dissolution of the superficial por-
tion of the glacier during summer passed, by infiltration, into the minute pores and
crevices of the glacier, where it was again converted into ice, and by its expansion in
the process of freezing produced a dilatation and consequent motion of the glacier. It
was manifest, however, that the frequent alternation of freezing and thawing within
the glacier which this theory assumed, could not possibly take place at depths be-
neath its surface exceeding a very few feet, and therefore could not produce any
sensible effect on the motion of the whole mass. This theory presented many other
difficulties, of which no adequate solution had been given; and the author could not
but consider it as contrary to the most obvious mechanical and physical principles.
Another theory had also been put forward, which attributed the motion of glaciers
to the expansion of water in the act of freezing, after it had filled, not the minute
pores of the ice, but internal cavities of considerable dimensions. But, since the
temperature of the glacier at considerable depths must be sensibly constant, how
were new cavities to be formed when existing ones had been once filled up? The
author, regarding both this theory and the preceding one as untenable, was thus led
to examine how far the apparent objections to De Saussure’s theory were really valid,
by a series of experiments on the descent of ice down inclined planes. The experi-
ments were made in the following manner :—a slab of sandstone, prepared to be laid
down as a part of a common flagstone pavement, was so arranged as to be easily
placed at any proposed inclination to the horizon. The surface of the slab, so far
from being polished, retained the grooved marks of the instrument with which the
quarryman had shaped it. A quantity of ice was placed on the slab, within a frame
nearly a foot square, intended merely to keep the ice together, and not touching the
slab, with which the ice alone was in contact. The following were results obtained
in one set of experiments, the ice being loaded with a weight of about 150lbs, The
temperature of the air was about 50° Fahr. :—
Inclination of the planes ...scsscseceeeesesene Bo Os Our ao” Mn
inches
Mean space descended through in one hour 0°31 *62 "96 2° 2°5
When the weight was increased, the rate of motion was also increased. The least
inclination at which sensible motion would take place was not determined ; but it
was ascertained that it could not exceed half a degree in the case of a smooth but
unpolished surface. With a polished surface of a marble slab, the motion of the ice
indicated a deviation from horizontality with as much sensibility as water itself. It
will be observed, in the results above given, that (1) the motion was unaccelerated ;
and (2) it increased with the inclination, and (when the inclination was not greater
than nine or ten degrees) in nearly the same ratio; and (3) the rate of movement
was of the same order of magnitude as in actual glacial motion, which may be stated
generally, in cases yet observed, never to exceed two feet a day. The extremely small
friction between the plane and the ice, indicated by the small inclination necessary
to produce motion, was manifestly due to the circumstance of the lower surface of
the ice being in a state of gradual disintegration, which, however, was extremely
slow, as proved by the: small quantity of water proceeding from it. In the applica-
tion, therefore, of these results to the case of actual glaciers, it was necessary to show
64 REPORT—1843.
that the temperature of their lower surfaces could not generally be less than 32° Fahr.
Such, the author stated, must necessarily be the case, unless the conductive power of
ice was greater than it was deemed possible that it could be. He considered the
sub-glacial currents as powerful agents in the disintegration of the lower surfaces of
glaciers, especially near their lower extremities. The results of Prof. Forbes’s obser-
vations on the motion of the Mer de Glace of Mont Blanc, afforded, as regards that
glacier (and, by inference, as regards all other glaciers), a complete refutation of the
theories which attribute glacial movements to any expansion or dilation of the ice.
The Professor had, however, put forth a new theory, which agreed with that offered
by Mr. Hopkins in attributing glacial motion to the action of gravity, but differed
from it entirely as a mechanical theory in other respects. The Professor appeared to
reject the sliding theory of De Saussure on account of the difficulties already men-
tioned (which were now removed by the above experiments), and assigned to the
mass of a glacier the property of plasticity, or semifluidity, in a degree sufficient to
account for the fact of its descending down surfaces of such small inclination. Ac-
cording to this theory, the motion was due to the small cohesion of one particle of
glacial ice to another. Mr. Hopkins stated his conviction that the internal cohesion
of the mass was immensely greater than its cohesion to the surface on which it rests,
whenever the lower surface is in a state of disintegration. It was perfectly consistent
with this conclusion to assign to the glacier whatever degree of plasticity might be
necessary to account for the relative motions of its central and longitudinal portions,
under the enormous pressure to which, according to his theory, he showed it might
be subjected. Such relative motions, however, were probably facilitated more by the
dislocation than the plasticity of the mass. Sufficient, he trusted, had been advanced
to prove that the sliding theory assigned a cause adequate to the production of all the
observed phenomena of glacial movements. With respect to the transport of erratic
blocks and detritus from the Alps to the Jura, Mr. Hopkins observed that the greatest
height which glaciers had formerly attained in the valley of the Rhone (whence a
large portion of the erratics had been derived), appeared to be well defined by lateral
moraines and polished rocks, while the greatest height at which these blocks had been
deposited on the Jura was also well defined. Thus, according to M. Charpentier,
the Rhone glacier must have risen, at the mouth of the valley, to about 2500 feet
above the existing surface of the Lake of Geneva; while the highest band of detritus
on the Jura was stated to rise to a still higher level. It was inconceivable, therefore,
that such detritus should have been lodged at its present elevation by former glaciers.
The only way in which it appeared possible to obviate the mechanical difficulties of
the subject, was to suppose the transport to have been effected when the Jura was
at a lower level relatively to the Alps, and the whole district lower relatively to the
surface of the ocean. In such case, the space between the Alps and the Jura may
have been occupied by the sea, and the ice, with its transported materials, may have
passed from the former to the latter chain, partly with the character of a glacier,
and partly with that of an iceberg. This hypothesis is perfectly consistent with the
supposition of the general configuration of the surface of the Jura having been the
same at the epoch of the transport as at the present time; and Mr. Hopkins believed
it would be found equally so with all the observed phenomena of that region.
Mr, Murchison exhibited a Relievo Map of England and Wales, prepared by
Messrs. Dobbs and Co., and coloured geologically under his own direction. He
pointed out the accordance between the physical features of the country and the
boundaries of particular strata, and stated generally the dependence of geographical
contour upon the geological structure of any region and the mechanical forces to
which the rocks had been subjected.
Mr. E. Hall exhibited his Maps and Sections illustrating the geological structure
of Derbyshire and the Lancashire Coal-field.
Prof. E, Forbes exhibited a Map of Lycia, by Lieut. Spratt.
a eee b
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
On the Classification of the Mammalia. By G. R. WATERHOUSE.
Tue paper is chiefly explanatory of the following tabular arrangement, in which the
author has attempted to group the various orders of the class Mammalia, so as to dis-
play their mutual relations.
QUADRUMANA.
1
Galeopithecus.
Pteropus. Cercolentes,
Lemur.
CARNIVORA,
4
CHEIROPTERA.
2
Gymnura, \Uydaus. Phoca.
Vespertilio. Sore.
INSECTIVORA.
3
Centetes, Manatus.
PACHYDERMATA.
6
Equus.
Elephas. Camelus,
RUMINANTIA,
”
4
RODENTIA.
9
Megatherium.
Bradypus.
Lepus,
Lagostomus.
EDENTATA,.
8
Phaseolomys.
°g te
SS RY
sake
MARSUPIATA,
10
Monotremata.
In this table the circles 1 to 9 inclusive, comprise the nine orders of Placental
Mammalia, and the circle 10 represents the Implacental, or Marsupial order. The pla-
_ cental series appears to divide itself into two great sections ; the first or highest em-
_ braces the order Quadrumana, Cheiroptera, Insectivora, and Carnivora, the species of
_ which possess the four kinds of teeth, viz. incisors, canines, false molars, and true
_ molars, in a well-developed condition. They are chiefly animals of prey, carnivorous
or insectivorous, if we except the first order, containing those mammals which in all
_ their characters approach most nearly to man, and are chiefly frugivorous.
_ The author proceeds to point out the peculiarities in the brain as observable in these
great sections, but remarks he is not prepared, in our present state of knowledge of
_ this organ, to follow those naturalists who would found a classification chiefly upon
its modifications ; certainly not upon those pointed out. He is not satisfied that in
1843. F
66 REPORT—1843.
all instances a highly developed brain is accompanied by a corresponding degree of
intelligence. Thus, for instance. the brain in the Cetaceans is very highly organized,
but we should perhaps take into consideration that the brain has to be educated from
without, and when we perceive the imperfections in the educatory media—the senses,
in the Whales, where the organ of smell is either wanting or exists only in a very ru-
dimentary condition; where the hands are transformed into fins, covered by a com-
mon integument, we can conceive that the highly organized brain is given to the Whale
to compensate for these deficiencies, and that its intelligence is not necessarily in
degree equal to what might be inferred from the consideration of the brain abstractedly.
The same remarks will apply to a certain degree to the brain of the Seals. The brain
of Stenops is instanced as a case of a comparatively low brain in one of the highest
order of Mammalia.
As regards the Cetaceans, although the condition of the senses may be taken into
account in considering the brain, with a view to forming an estimation of their intel-
ligence, the author is of opinion that so highly organized a brain as is possessed by
that group, forbids its being placed at the end of the class, as has been done.
On the whole, the Cetacea are perhaps most conveniently located between the great
carnivorous section and the herbivorous, as inthe table. They may be connected with
the Pachydermata through the Lamantins, and with the Carnivora through the Seals.
The author follows De Blainville, Owen, and some other naturalists, in separating the
Phytophagous genera, Manatus, Halicore and Rytina, from the true Whales, with
which they are associated by Cuvier. The animals constituting these three genera
he regards as aquatic Pachydermata, bearing the same relations to the ordinary Pachy-
derms as do the Seals to the Carnivora.
In the circles representing the orders are introduced those genera, belonging to
each, which appear to approach most nearly to other orders. Most of these approaches
of genera of one order to the general characters of other orders have been before
pointed out ; he does not, however, see good reasons for the belief (expressed by
some) that the groups pass imperceptibly into each other; were that the case, there
would be many species so well balanced in their characters that they could not, ina
classification, without doing violence to those characters, be placed in any particular
order ; they would require to be arranged between the orders the characters of which
they combined. Species which even appear to require to be so located are, however,
at least far from numerous, and in proportion as the knowledge of the groups and
species increases, so does the number of supposed links decrease ; it becomes less and
less doubtful in which group an animal should be placed. Instances illustrative of
this point are mentioned. The questicn is (the author observes), whether any species
is framed essentially on two types of the same rank? Each animal is framed to per-
form certain functions, and is perfectly adapted to those functions, but beyond this, is
not each species framed upon some general and particular model? Certainly it may
be said with respect to the Water-rat (Arvicola amphibia), that it is framed on the Ver-
tebrate model ; on the Mammalian type of that model; on the Rodent type of the
Mammalia; and it is equally clear to the senses that it possesses the same general
structure of skull, combined with the anchylosed fibula to the tibia, &c., which cha-
racterize the murine family of the Rodent order. Beyond this, again, it exhibits a mo- —
dification in the structure of the teeth, in which it agrees with numerous other species
of the family mentioned, and which are classed under the generic title Arvicola. So
that, in one sense, the Water-rat may be said to be essentially framed upon more than
one model, but from the lowest to the highest of the divisions mentioned, each model
is a modification of the type of the division which precedes it, and the case might be
therefore symbolically represented by concentric circles of different sizes, the largest
of which would typify the Vertebrata, and the smallest the genus Arvicola, It does
not appear thatthe Water-rat is framed upon two or more types of equal rank, and the
author strongly inclines to the belief that what is true of one species, as regards the 4
point under consideration, is true of all. hd
He next calls attention to another point connected with the genera introduced in the —
table, observing, that it often happens that those species of one order which approach —
most nearly to other adjoining orders, are not met, as it were, by a corresponding ap-—
proach in those adjoining orders. Each order may throw out rays (to speak figura-
tively) to other orders, but the rays are seldom in the same direction. Among the
Carnivora, the genus Mydaus, in general appearance, and in its insectivorous diet, re-
sembles the species of the order Insectivora, but it differs widely in dentition, having
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67
but one true molar to each side of each jaw, as in others of the group to which it be-
longs. On the ocher hand we find a considerable approach evinced in the genus
Gymnura (one of the Insectivora) to the carnivorous order, displayed in the general
form of the skull, in the presence of six incisors (a number unusual in the Insee-
tivora), and well-developed canines. Here is a case of one of the Insectivora ap-~
proaching the Carnivora on the one hand, and of one of the Carnivora approaching the
Insectivora on the other. But the two animals mentioned do not approach towards
each other in corresponding modifications of structure. Several other illustrations of
this point are noticed in the paper, which then proceeds to give some general obser=
vations on dentition, and characters derivable from other parts, with a view to show
the kind of connexion which exists between the several genera introduced in the
table, and the orders to which they are approximated. In none of the instances of
approach of species of one order to other orders alluded to in the paper, does the
author perceive a case which would, in his opinion, fully bear out the notion that the
orders imperceptibly blend into each other. There is always (he observes) a tolerably
well-marked line between them, hence he has inclosed the orders in circles. The
aberrant species are readily traced back, as it were, into their own groups, and when
they evince an approach to other circles, it is rather to the order, than to any par-
ticular species of the order.
In conclusion, he offers the following propositions and observations for conside=
ration :—
Species of animals belonging to the same genus have an affinity to each other;
genera of the same family have a mutual affinity; relationship of affinity may like-
wise exist between families of the same order, and orders of the same class, but the
degree of affinity is different in the different cases. Thus,
species of the same genus have an affinity of the first, or nearest degree ;
species of different genera have an affinity of the second degree only ;
species of different families have an affinity of the third degree only ;
species of different orders have an affinity of the fourth degree only ;
species of different classes have an affinity of the fifth degree only.
_ Arelationship may exist between species of different groups which differs from
either of the cases just mentioned,—that which is commonly termed by naturalists a
** relationship of analogy.” This again may vary in degree according to the affinities
and relative rank of the groups which present the cases of analogy. The analogy may
be more or less remote. Thus the case of analogy (so often quoted as such) as ex-
isting between the Goat-sucker (Caprimulgus) and the Bat—members of different
classes—might be expressed as one—say of the fifth degree; that of the Otters to
the Beavers (animals of different orders of the same class) an analogy of the fourth de-
gvee ; and that of the Beaver to the Coypu* (Myopotamus), an analogy of the third
degree. Again, the relationship existing between the Whales and Fishes may be one
of analogy of the fifth degree, that existing between the Dugong and the Porpoise
may be one of affinity or analogy, but in either case is less remote than the relation-
ship of the Cetacea to the fishes.
According to these propositions, moreover, the relaticnship of the Lagostomus to
the Marsupiata might be one of affinity of the fourth degree, whilst that of the Wom-
bat to the Rodentia might be one of analogy of the same degree; that of the Wombat
to the Phalangistide, an affinity of the third degree ; and of the Koalu (Phascolomys)
to Phalangista, an affinity of the second degree; and lastly, that of Phalangista vul-
pina to Phalangista Cookii, an affinity of the nearest, or first degree. The affinity of
the Monotremata to the class Reptilia would be several degrees further removed than
that of the Echidna to the Ornithorhynchust.
‘On the Physical Character, Languages, and Manners of the People of the
Navigators Islands. By Mr. Hearn.
_ The islanders were described as a fine race of people, the average size rather above
that of Europeans—the colour brunette, the face oval, the hair black and rather crisp,
_ * These two animals are essentially modelled upon different types of the Rodent order.
__ + The Monotremuta are placed with the Edentata by Cuvier, but Mr. Waterhouse regards the
Monotremata as constituting an aberrant group of the Marsupiata: their relationship with the
true Edentata is certainly one of analogy only.
F2
68 REPORT—1843.
and the eyes a fine black. ‘Their language is at present scarcely known to philolo-
gists. It is spoken by about 60,000, and is a dialect of the wide-spread Polynesian.
One of its marked peculiarities is, its reciprocal conjugation of the verb. Mr. Heath
had entered very fully into a comparison of the Samoan with the Malay, and of
several of the Polynesian languages among themselves, and of some of the Papuan
dialects, and had obtained extensive vocabularies. With regard to individual and
family life, the child is named after the god whose name is last invoked prior to the
moment of birth. The mothers slightly press the forehead so as to give it a conical
form : they rear their children tenderly. Circumcision is practised. They believed
in a future state, but had rather loose and inconsistent notions as to what sort of
state it is; some, they said, became gods, some were eaten by the gods, and the chiefs
became living pillars in a large temple. The tradition with them is, that they came
from the westward, and their elysium is Pulotu. Since Pulo is the name for island,
this also indicates their origin. ‘They are an intelligent people, and manifestly capable
ofimprovement. The people of Tanna and the neighbouring island are in stature
about five feet six or five feet eight, the legs rather short and ill-formed: they are
neither so well-formed or well-featured as the Samoans and other Polynesians. The
complexion is the colour of dirty or worn copper coin, and they make their skin still
darker by a deep purple-dye; they also daub their faces with red, black, and other
pigments. There is a mixture of the Papuans and Polynesians, for the people of
Erranan and Immer have dialects very similar to the Samoan, and there are inter-
marriages between the tribes, so that the Polynesians are now nearly as dark-coloured
as the Papuan. Various dialects were found, not only in the group, but even on one
and the’same island. The language spoken at Port Resolution is in some respects
peculiar ; it has a conjugation of the verb by prefixes, and not only a dual but a triple
personal pronoun. The people of Tanna sometimes bury their dead in shallow graves,
sometimes tie a stone to them and sink them in the sea. At Anatom, the widow is
tied, alive, to the dead body of her husband, and sunk together with it in the sea.
Dr. Harvey furnished a catalogue of the Vertebrata of the county of Cork as com-
pared with those of Ireland generally, and Great Britain; by which it would appear,
that of 630 vertebrated animals, natives of the British Isles, there are 445 found in
Ireland, and of these 285 in the county of Cork. There are of—
British. Irish. Cork.
Mammalia ..........c.eeeeee weGdee tisetices ate. VOF 28 23
Aves ...... Stecee eects. Glesteees Pe Eee st be as 312 253 161
Reptilia...... eeeene POeeeTEPEROOE Eee 15 4 2
Picces) Ui.i-.ceeccs Spei Laee eS ees moueteee . 236 157 99
Turdus Whitei, Sciena aquila, and Naucrates ductor, included in this catalogue, had
not been observed before in Ireland. Glareola pratincola is noticed as having once
been shot in the county of Cork, but the specimen was not preserved.
On Certain Peculiarities in the Arteries of the Six-banded Armadillo.
By Dr. Atiman.
The peculiarities noticed in this communication consist in a remarkable arrange-
ment of vessels, analogous to what has been already observed in the Sloths, in the
two-toed Anteater and in the Lorises, and is characterized by the arteries having a
tendency to divide rather than ramify ; from which it results, that instead of a diffusely
branched arterial distribution, the larger branches suddenly break themselves up into
a. number of small vessels, which anastomosing but sparingly, give rise to a series
of vascular pencils, from which the ultimate supply of blood to the organs is derived.
This remarkable arrangement is chiefly displayed in the arteries of the posterior ex-
tremities, in the caudal arteries, and in the epigastric.
Mr. Thompson exhibited specimens of the Alpine Hare (Lepus variabilis), from the
Highlands of Scotland, and of the Hare of Ireland (Lepus hibernicus), for the purpose
of showing that the species are identical. Of this fact he, judging from external
characters, satisfied himself last autumn, when in the Highlands of Scotland, and sub-
sequently proved it by a comparison of the anatomical characters of the two supposed
species,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69
Description of a Chart of the Natural Affinities of the Insessorial Order of
Birds. By H. E. StRIcKLAnp.
At the Glasgow meeting, in 1840, Mr. Strickland had first proposed his plan for
exhibiting the affinities of allied organic forms, by a process analogous, in some re-
spects, to that of map-making. He now exhibited a large chart constructed on this
plan, and showing the affinities of the genera in the order Insessores. The name
of each genus is inscribed in an oval cartouche, and its affinities to other genera are
indicated by connecting lines, the lengths of which lines are approximately propor-
tionate to the remoteness of the affinities. Those genera which are most nearly allied
are connected by a line of one degree, or unit, in length; and those less closely allied,
by a line of two degrees. Genera so distant as to require to be placed in different
sub-families, are united by lines of three or four degrees; those in different families
by lines of five or six degrees; and those in different tribes by lines of seven or eight
degrees. A line is drawn round those genera which constitute one sub-family, and
the area thus inclosed is coloured, the surrounding space being left white. The sub-
families which belong to the same family, are distinguished by the same colour; and
the families are inclosed within a dotted line; while the boundaries of the tribes
are marked by a red stripe. The names of the respective groups are inserted; and
the whole assumes the appearance of a cluster of islands depicted on a map. The
author expressed his belief that the true affinities of organized beings may be ex-
pressed with greater accuracy and conciseness by this method than by any other with
which he was acquainted. Being a purely inductive process, the details of any
branch of natural history may be in this way worked out and depicted without re-
course to any theoretical assumptions. One result of it seems to be, that the true
affinities of organic structures branch out irregularly in all directions, and that no
symmetrical arrangement or numerical uniformity is discoverable in the system of
nature when studied independently of preconceived theory. '
Periodical Birds observed in the years 1842 and 1843 near Llanrwst, Den-
bighshire, North Wales. By Joun Buacxwatt, F.L.S.
Birds. Appeared. | Disappeared.
1842. 1843.
Redwing, Turdus iliacus ..........+. “SCTE LAR, Oct.
Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola ..........00.see seer eeeees ” 7 | March 25
Mountain Finch, Fringilla montifringilla ..............+. iat >)
Fieldfare, Turdus pilars ............4. Reet rene. Nov. 6] April 5
1843.
Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba ....... Reps orice ses 4 March 13
Yellow Wren, Sylvia trochilus ......0+ccce.seeeeseceeess April 10
Common Sandpiper, Totanus hypoleucos ...,.......+ aipiare 3 11
Redstart, Sylvia phoenicurus ........00ceeeeeees AO GEE 2 16
Swallow, Hirundo rustica ............ Bate carne tis oeacaiesers ee 16
Sand Martin, Hirundo riparia ........ [da dno ane P Re ready
Tree Pipit, Anthus arboreus ......+....- SE epioche Ea eae Ae gel a ee
Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus ........ hincwon, oi: Botete eae ets es 20 | July 3
Lesser Pettychaps, Sylvia hippolais ............. emo tys Ment tiles Wes |
Black-cap, Sylvia atricapilla............ Lapel es et bt say ae
White-throat, Sylvia cinerea... ..........00ee eee eg ae Be 23
Wood Wren, Sylvia sibilatrix ........ Ma eersee a tlamiel Me cies ey 24
Land Rail, Gallinula crez ...... Si Sek er Aad Nae 3 24
Whinchat, Sazicola rubetra ...... Wenestts SME Scie ait ote F i 29
Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapu luctuosa ...........0..eeeeee May 2
Swift, Cypselus murarius ........+0...065 OE RAB Ar a3 5 | Aug. 10
House Martin, Hirundo urbica........ 0002. c cece eee ee es ne 6
- Pettychaps, Sylvia hortensis .......... pe stolalatturata rare seelonet » 9
Sedge Warbler, Sylvia phragmitis .....+..0+.... er ca tees 10
Red-backed Shrike, Lanius collurio .......... Soa. weaes op 1]
Spotted Fly-catcher, Muscicapa grisola ......s0..seeese0 | 9 14
. Goat-sucker, Caprimulgus europ@us .....ceeereveccescne ” 19
70 REPORT—1843.
On the Structure and Affinities of Upupa, Lin., and Irrisor, Lesson.
By H. E. Srrickiann, F.G.S.
The African genus Irrisor of Lesson has been classed by various authors in the
genera Upupa, Merops, and Epimachus, but as it is distinct from all these, and also
from Brisson’s genus Promerops, by which name later authors have called it, the
term Irrisor of Lesson becomes its legitimate appellation.
Most authors have placed Jrrisor very near Upupa, but the Baron Lafresnaye (in
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 124), maintains that they have no immediate affinity, and
places Irrisor among the Nectariniide, and Upupa in the same family with Upucer-
thia and its allied genera. It is true that there are considerable differences between
these genera. In Upupa the plumage is ferruginous, the head crested, the tail even,
with ten rectrices, the lateral tees nearly equal, the outer and middle ones divided to
their base, the anterior claws short and blunt, and the hind claw nearly straight, a
structure conformable to its terrestrial habits. In Irrisor the plumage is metallic
black, the head not crested, the tail graduated, with twelve rectrices, the outer toe
longer than the inner, united to the middle one by its basal joint, and the claws
curved and sharp, indicating arboreal habits, But on the other hand, the beaks of
these genera possess in common two peculiarities of structure, overlooked by pre-
vious naturalists, but which are believed to occur in no other known group of birds.
These are, first, the perfect flatness of the inner surfaces of both mandibles, so that
when closed they are brought into perfect contact, leaving only a small space at the
base for a short obtuse tongue; and secondly, a narrow groove along the ridge of
both mandibles towards the apex. In Upupa this groove is single, in Irrisor it is di-
vided by a fine longitudinal ridge.
The author of this paper contended that the peculiar characters of the beak, common
to Upupa and Irrisor, but found in no other known group of birds, indicate, not an ana-
logy, but a real affinity between them, and must therefore, taken in connection with
mninor points of agreement in the form and style of colouring of the wings, and in the
mode of nidification, be considered to preponderate over the various points of differ-
ence. We must therefore continue to class Upupa and Irrisor (together with Rhinopo-
mastus, which is hardly distinguishable as a genus from the latter), in one and the same
superior group, Upupide. The next question is, in what part of the natural system the
group Upupide, so restricted, is to be placed? They are certainly a very insulated
group, bat the combination of a long beak with a short tongue seems to show an
affinity in one direction to the Alcedinide, and in another they probably lead through
Epimachus to the Paradiseide. We require, however, much fuller details respecting
the habits and anatomy of these birds before their true place can be determined with
certainty.
Mr. Strickland read to the Section a Catalogue of the Birds found in Corfu and the
Tonian Islands, by Capt. H. M. Drummond, 42nd R.H.—In this list, which is of con-
siderable extent, Capt. Drummond has inserted many valuable observations on the
habits and migrations of the birds which occur in the Ionian Islands. The total num-
ber of species in the list is 200 ;—of these 160 are British, 39 are found on the Euro-
pean continent, but not in Britain, and 1, the Calamoherpe olivetorum, Strickland, has
hitherto been found only in the Ionian Islands, where it is very common during the
summer, _-——
Mr. Strickland presented a similar list, by the same gentleman, of the birds of Crete,
made during a visit to that island in May and June 1843, in company with Capt.
Graves of H.M.S. Beacon —From the shortness of the author’s stay in Crete, this list
is less complete than the last, but embodies many interesting facts. The total of
species observed was 105, of which 86 are British and 19 continental. It is remark-
able that the common sparrow of Crete is the Fringilla cisalpina, while, in the Ionian
Islands, it is replaced by the #. domestica. Mr. Strickland expressed his pleasure at
the progress of Capt. Drummond’s ornithological researches. Such lists were of great
value in forming tables of the distribution of animal life, and he bore testimony to
the accuracy of Capt. Drummond’s observations.
Mr. Strickland exhibited to the Section the beautiful work of the Prince of Canino,
called Fauna Italica, the fruit of ten years’ labour. The Prince had, unfortunately,
been prevented from attending this meeting, in consequence of the approaching
See a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71
scientific congress at Lucca, in September, but he had promised to be present at. the
meeting next year,
Mr. Thompson exhibited to the Section a specimen of the Pycnonotus chrysorrheus,
Swainson, shot near Waterford in January 1838, and belonging to Dr. Burkitt, of
that city. This species of bird is a native of Africa, and has not before been noticed
as visiting Europe.
Dr. Lankester read the following extract of a letter from Mr. Denny, of Leeds:—
“During the recent meeting of the Provincial Medical Association in Leeds, a me-
dical friend of mine informed me that a pair of grey parrots had hatched and reared
a young bird in his village. This struck me as something novel; at least, so far as
rearing the young parrot was concerned, as I was previously aware that parrots will
lay eggs in this country, but I have never heard of an instance of hatching. I there-
fore put down several queries for my friend to get me answers to on his return, which
I now forward to you, thinking it might interest some of the members of the British
Association at Cork :—‘ The two old birds were purchased in the market at Sierra
Leone, in 1840, when about six months old, and brought to England in the same
cage; but were then separated until February 1842, the male being left at Hull and
the female brought to Riccal. She first commenced laying in July 1842, and laid
three eggs, which were taken from her as she laid them. She began to lay this year
about the 10th of June, and laid two eggs, which she sat on exactly four weeks, and
brought off one bird only, which was hatched on Sunday, July 16th. They are fed
upon boiled flour pudding, which the old birds masticate and feed the young bird
with, The old lady, the owner, also frequently chews a little pudding and allows the
young bird to take it from her mouth. Both birds sat upon the eggs in turn, and
the male frequently pushed the female from the eggs for the purpose. The young
bird was blind about sixteen days, and quite bare of feathers or down. It can now
(August 5) see, and is beginning to be downy, and is growing very fast, and appears
a very strong bird.’” Dr. Lankester also exhibited from Mr. Denny, a specimen of a
Carabus, completely covered with parasites, which he supposed to be Ewropoda vegetans.
Mr. Thompson called attention to the circumstance of the nidification of the
Woodcock in Ireland, with especial reference to Tullamore Park, in the county of
Down, the seat of the Earl of Roden. Here the species was first observed to remain
throughout the summer and rear its young in 1835, since which period the numbers
so remaining have been gradually on the increase, and in the present year twenty-
two nests have been found; so that woodcocks are now as plentiful in summer as
in winter in the park.
Mr. Ball exhibited a drawing of Cuculus glandarius taken from a specimen of the
bird which had come under his notice. It is the property of Mrs. Creighton, and was
captured on an island near Clifden, in the county of Galway, in March last. This is
the first recorded instance of the occurrence of the species in the British Islands. It
is well known in Africa and Southern Europe.
Mr. Humphreys read a paper on the Mollusca of the county of Cork, of which he
enumerated 230 species, besides 55 species of the Articulata, and 25 of the Radiata.
On the Microscopie Structure of Shells. By W. B. Carpenter, M.D.
The author stated that all the solid calcareous shells of molluscous animals possessed
organic structure, in the same manner as the teeth of the higher orders of animals;
amongst recent shells this structure is characteristic of various natural groups, and
will, thetefore, probably afford valuable assistance in the determination of fossil genera
and species. The principal varieties of structure were described as consisting of mo-
difications of two simple forms, the Cellular and the Membranous. Of the first of
these, the Pinna affords a good example :. it consists of prismatic cells, like the cellular
tissue of vegetables, filled with carbonate of lime; and if placed in acid, the lime will
be removed, and the membrane alone remain, still preserving its cellular structure.
In old specimens of the Pinna the animal matter is sometimes destroyed, leaving only
72 REPORT—1843.
the calcareous part of the shell, composed of minute spiculz of carbonate of lime,
which crumble under the finger. Cellular structure is found in all shells belonging to
the order Margaritaceze. With these the Pinna should be placed, since the Mytilacee,
with which it has been hitherto classed, possess a different structure. Deshayes, in
the new edition of Lamarck, upon a comparison of the characters of the genus Pinna,
considers it more nearly allied to Avicula than Mytilus. In the fossil genus Inoce-
ramus, traces of the cellular membrane may be discovered by dissolving the shell in
weak acid. ‘This structure also forms a thin layer between the epidermis and the
nacre of Unionidz ; and also exists in the Ostracee. Dr. Carpenter has not found it
in any shell not belonging to these natural families, except the anomalous genus Pan-
dora. The second class of shells described by the author includes those possessing the
Membranous Structure. In these the calcareous matter is deposited in laminz, sepa-
rated by excessively thin membrane, which forms, in fact, a secreting surface. This
membrane does not lie flat, but is usually extremely corrugated and folded, and these
folds being repeated ina regular manner, give rise to the nacreous lustre of the shells.
Fragments of the Haliotis, after being laid in acid for a week, are still nacreous. A
similar structure is also found in the Cowry and other porcellaneous shells, which are
composed of three layers, the direction of the folds being different in each layer, as
seen in the fracture of the shell. Another peculiarity in the internal structure of some
shells consists of minute tubes, ramifying copiously over the different layers of mem-
brane, and sending branches into the adjoining laminze. Both the membranous and
tubular structure are found in the Avicula cygnipes of the lias, showing that it belongs
to the natural order Pectinide, and not to the Margaritacee. Prof. Phillips was
aware, at the time he published this species, that it was nearly allied to the genus
Lima and other Pectinide. ‘The structure of the Brachiopoda is peculiarly plicated ;
and in the true Terebratulz all the laminations are perforated by minute holes, going
quite through the shell. In a transverse section these perforations are seen to enlarge
as they approach the inner surface, forming funnel-shaped openings, lined by a mem-
branous prolongation of the mantle, which is closely adherent to the inner surface
of the shell. In one recent species, the Terebratula psittacea, the perforations are
wanting; but in this species the structure of the hinge is also different, bringing it near
a particular division of the fossil Brachiopoda (Atrypa, Dalman). Most of the fossil
Terebratule that are deeply plicated also want the perforations, and these probably
constitute a separate group. In concluding, Dr. Carpenter pointed out some of the
peculiarities in the structure of the skeletons of the Echinodermata, which have been
noticed by Valentin in his Monograph. The calcareous plates of an Echinus consist
of numerous thin Jamine, connected by little pillars; and as the laminz are per-
forated all over, whichever way a section is taken it exhibits a minute net-work. Dr.
Carpenter stated that before becoming acquainted with the observations of Valentin,
which are confined to the genus Echinus, he had detected a corresponding structure
in all the families of the class. Dr. Carpenter also exhibited diagrams of several
beautiful forms of structure in the spines of different species of Cidaris, and in the
plates, forming the column of several fossil and recent Pentacrinites, showing that a
different arrangement of the internal particles obtained in every species. ‘This struc-
ture is well preserved in the fossil species, although they possess a regular crystalline
cleavage.
On the addition of the order Nucleobranchia to the British Molluscous Fauna.
By Professor E. Forses.
Four years ago the author noticed minute needle-shaped animals floating under the
surface of the water of the Frith of Forth and of the British Channel, which, when exa-
mined under the microscope, presented several anomalous characters, which rendered
their true position in the animal series doubtful. At the time he was able to make
but an imperfect examination of them, which he laid before the Wernerian Society. He
has since met with much larger animals, belonging to the same genus, inhabiting the
Mediterranean sea, which enabled him to refer them to the genus Sagitta of Quoy
and Gaimard, placed by those naturalists in the immediate neighbourhood of Firola, in
the order Nucleobranchia. Both the British and Mediterranean animals have linear-
lanceolate bodies, terminated anteriorly by an oval head, and posteriorly by a horizontal
tail. Along the sides are two pair of fins, also placed horizontally, the undermost pair
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73
being large in the British, and extremely small in the Mediterranean Sagitta. From
the latter the following points of structure were made out. On each side of the head
is a row of curved bristle-like processes, wnich can be erected or depressed at the
will of the animal. On the head are two distinct black eyes. The mouth opens into
a straight intestine, terminating in a vent where the body begins suddenly to contract,
at about two-thirds of its length. On each side of this vent, but opening on the op-
posite side of the body, is a slightly curved canal, terminating in a cul de sac, and
resembling closely the canals which contain the pinnated appendages of the Cydippe,
but empty. The fins are of various shapes, and appear to form a sound basis for
specific distinctions, They are rayed. The length of the largest specimen was two
inches. The British examples were very minute. M. D’Orbigny has figured and
described several species of Sagitta, which he observed during his South American
voyages ; but the details of his observations do not exactly coincide with those of
Professor Forbes, The body which D’Orbigny styles a heart was not seen by the
latter in any case; and the only circulation observed was an obscure movement of
fluid with granules in the posterior part of the body behind the anus. No appear-
ances of cilia were seen on the external surface. The author concluded, that however
anomalous the characters of these curious animals might seem, it was nevertheless
convenient, and probably correct, to arrange them among the nucleobranchous mol-
lusca. He proposes to name the Mediterranean form Sagitta Mediterranea, and the
British Sagitta Britannica. To the same order he was inclined to refer the shell
called, by Dr. Fleming, Fusus retroversus, and which appears to be identical with, or
at least very nearly allied to, the Atlanta trochiformis of M. D’Orbigny.
On some new Species of Mollusca nudibranchiata, with Observations on the
Structure and Development of the Animals of that Order. By Messrs.
J. ALDER and A. Hancock.
The species described were a beautiful Calliopcea, the first discovered in Britain, and
four new species of Eolis. The authors gave an account of their observations on the
development of the ova in that order, stating the remarkable fact of these animals
undergoing a complete metamorphosis, and being in their first or larva state, furnished
with a nautiloid shell, which afterwards entirely disappears. They next alluded to
some interesting anatomical peculiarities, describing the gastro-vascular system in
Eolis, and the ejection occasionally of some curious bodies from the ends of the pa-
pill, apparently connected with this system. The organs of the external senses were
next remarked upon, and the existence of organs of hearing in this class of gastero-
pods for the first time pointed out. They consist of small capsules filled with very
minute concretions, which, in the living animal, are in a continued state of oscilla-
tion. Several reasons were also adduced for supposing that the dorsal tentacula of
these animals are the true organs of smelling. The whole was illustrated by a series
of drawings by Mr. Hancock.
Mr. Thompson noticed some additions to the Fauna of [reland, comprising alto-
gether in the various classes (excepting Insecta, Entozoa and Infusoria) about sixty
species.
On the Irish species of the genus Limax. By the Rev. B.J.Cuarxe. Iilus-
trated by coloured drawings and living specimens.
Two species were described in detail which had not been included by previous
writers in the British Catalogue, the Limax arboreus of Bouchard, and the L. Ga-
gates of Draparnaud and Ferussac. The occurrence of both had been noticed by Mr.
Clarke in the Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. for 1840, but with some doubt, which
subsequent observations had removed. Of Limaz arboreus a minute detailed de-
Scription was given, from which it would appear to be identical with the Limax so
designated by M. Bouchard. But in the absence of specimens or figures for com-
parison, Mr. Clarke suggested the name of L. glaucus, as descriptive of its very
peculiar hue, if it should not prove to be identical. The ZL. arboreus is not un-
common in the wooded districts of Ireland, especially on the ash and the beech,
concealing itself during the daytime under the moss on the trunks.
Limaz Gagates (Draparnand).—The Irish specimens of this Limax agree with
74 REPORT—1843.
Ferussac’s variety 6. The only British species with which it can be compared as
to form is L. Sowerbii, In some districts of Ireland the species is not uncommon,
fréquenting gardens and thick herbage.
In the course of the paper all the British Limaces were mentioned as occurring in
Ireland, with the exception of Limax brunneus (Draparnaud), which had not as yet
come under the notice of the author.
Prof. Forbes exhibited several living animals which he had taken by means of the
dredge off the coast of Cork. Some of these were but rarely taken; amongst them
were a white variety of Cyprea nattica, Ophiura texturata, Buccinum reticulatum,
Ophiotoma roseola, several species of corallines and various crustacea, and specimens
of the genus Polycera, Eurastia, Trochus, and a hermit crab.
Prof. Forbes exhibited specimens of animals which had been dredged up on the
coast of Ireland by Mr. Hoskyn, R.N. He then read a communication from Mr. Alder,
describing a new species of molluse found at Dalkey Island, near Dublin, having a
shell in all respects similar to that of the genus Rissoa, from which, nevertheless, the
animal differs materially, The most striking peculiarities were the presence of four
tentacula, and the position of the eyes, which are placed on the back, at some distance
behind tlie tentacula, and not at their base, as in Rissoa and the allied genera.
On Plumatella repens. By Dr. Atiman.
The author divided his paper into two sections, in the first of which he gave the
zoological characters of the Zoophyte, and in the second entered into the zootomical
details of its structure. In the first part of the paper it was attempted to reduce to
some sort of order the chaotic mass of synonyms. with which the zoophyte in ques-
tion was encumbered. This was facilitated by keeping in mind the existence of two
variations which Plumatella repens is seen to assume. In one of these the zoophyte
will be found attaching itself to flat surfaces, as the under side of stones, and of the
floating leaves of water plants, &c., being closely adherent in its entire extent. In
the second variation it will be found fixed to surfaces of small extent, as submerged
stems and pieces of stick, and as the animal continues to develope, the branches
having no extensive surface of attachment will become free, and a more or less en«
tangled bushy mass will be the result.
Plumatella repens exhibits in a high degree of perfection the molluscan type of
structure, and a distinct pharynx, stomach and intestine may easily be traced. Con-
nected with the mouth, there is here, as well as in most other freshwater zoophytes of
the same order, a very singular valve-like organ. This is situated between the mouth
and the inner margin of the crescentic tentacular disc. Its form is somewhat that of
the epiglottis in certain animals ; it is convex towards the mouth, concave on the op-
posite surface. That surface which looks towards the mouth is covered with cilia, and
to the other there is attached a sacciform membrane. The orifice of this sac cor-
responds with all the posterior surface of the valve, and to that portion of the tenta-
cular disc which lies between the latter and the concavity of the crescent, and is thus
completely closed, except at a small orifice in the disc, by means of which the sac
of the valve would appear to communicate with the space between the body of the
polype and the reflected tunic, and through this with the general cavity of the polype
cell. The motion of the valve consists in a depression of this organ towards the
mouth, followed bya return to its original position ; and a rapid succession of these
movements may frequently be observed. It is difficult to say by what mechanism the
motion of the valve is effected, but it is very probable that it is the result of the in-
jection of the sac with fluid through the opening in the disc.
The crown of tentacula is surrounded at its base by a caliciform membrane of
extreme delicacy and transparency. This calyx is adherent to the tentacula for a
short distance from their origin, but near its edge it becomes free, and hangs in loose
plice from their sides.
The pharynx opens into the stomach by a distinct papilliform projection, which be-
comes prominent during deglutition, That part of the stomach which receives the
pharynx consists of a remarkable elongation, occupying the place of the gizzard in
many other zoophytes of this order, but in the present species not differing in struc-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75
ture from the rest of the stomach, To this portion of the stomach Dr. Allman gave
the name of cardiac cavity.
Ov a line with the continuation of the cardiac into the great cavity arises the intes-
tine from the upper part of the latter, and from the angle between the cardiac cavity
and intestine the parietes of the stomach are prolonged into the great cavity obliquely
across the pyloric orifice. By this arrangement the ventricular opening of the intes-
tine is much contracted, and the prolongation of the walls appearing to act as a pyloric
valve, will, under the influence of some vital stimulus, cause the alimentary matter to
be retained in the stomach till fitted for passing into the intestine ; and when the
contents of the stomach have undergone the necessary change and passed the pylorus,
the same contrivance will probably prevent any regurgitation.
Two distinct groups of muscles may be detected in Plumatella repens; one which
cotresponds with the anterior set of retractor muscles described by Dr. Farre in the
Ascidian Zoophytes of the sea; and another analogous to the opercular muscles of
this anatomist. These last muscles are peculiar and may be divided into two sets.
The first consists of a set of irregularly disposed fibres which arise from the inner side
of the internal tunic, commencing all round at the part where this tunic becomes
united, near the orifice of the cell, with the external, and thence extending for some
distance down the walls of the cell, From these points of origin fibres pass nearly
horizontally inwards, and are inserted into the permanently invaginated portion of
the internal tunic. The second set consists of a series of distinct muscular fasciculi,
longer and stronger than the former; below which they arise’also from the internal
tunic, at regular intervals around the circumference of the cell, and in a plane per-
pendicular to its axis, and thence radiating inwards, are inserted into the opposed
surface of the reflected tunic.
Of the structure of the ova of Plumatella, Dr. Allman gave the following account :—
The ova will be found to consist, as in those of Alcyonella, of a central disc, in-
closing the embryonic matter, and of a rim which surrounds the disc, and from which
it differs considerably in structure. The disc is formed of two membranes, each of
which is composed of a single layer of minute vessels. These membranes differ from
each other in the size of the component vesicles, and as there is but a single layer of
vesicles in each, one face of the disc must consequently be thinner than the other.
Both faces are concave on one side and convex on the other, and the concave sides
being opposed and the edges united, a closed space is thus formed, which is filled by
an immense number of minute whitish globules floating in a gelatinous fluid, and which
are afterwards to be developed into the perfect zoophyte. The walls of the disc are
of a horny elastic texture, of a deep brown colour, and when emptied of their con-
tents, are found to possess some degree of transparency. Immediately surrounding
the disc is the rim, equally wide all round, composed of two laminz, united by their
convex edges, and thence diverging to embrace the disc, which they overlap for a
short distance. They inclose a cellular structure, the cells of which are irregular
in form and arrangement. The rim is nearly colourless and transparent, and of a
harder and more brittle texture than the disc.
Besides the bodies just described, others may frequently be observed closely re-
sembling them in form, but never attached to the sides of the tube. These last bodies
also differ from the mature ova, in their want of colour and in the softness of their
texture, being easily broken down under the needle. That they are ova in an imma-
ture state there can be no doubt, their want of colour and softness of texture, and the
fact of their never being found attached to the sides of the tube, being the only cir-
cumstances in which they appear to differ from the bodies which have been already
described. These characters they would appear to retain till they have acquired their
full size. Whether the attachment of the ovum to the sides of the tube be an invari-
able epoch in its history, it is not easy to determine ; many which differ in nothing
from the attached ova, are found to float freely in the fluid which immediately sur-
rounds the body of the polype ; and Dr. Allman has been unable to determine whether
at any subsequent period they became fixed. The adhesion of the ovum to the sides of
the tube is effected by an extra vascular unorganized substance resembling a varnish,
transparent and brittle, and which is interposed between the thin face of the ovum
and the parietes of the tube. Whether this uniting substance is poured out by the
ovum itself, or secreted by the sides of the cell, or by some other part of the animal,
76 REPORT—1843.
it is impossible even to hazard an opinion. It is a singular fact, that it is invariably by
the thinner of the two faces that the ovum becomes attached, and even in this simple
occurrence, among these apparently insignificant organisms, a design is evident; for
after the polype tube has become decomposed, and the ovum exposed to the influence
of disintegrating agents, the free, and consequently unprotected, surface is by this ar-
rangement always the thicker and the more resisting.
There would appear to be no possible way by which the ova can be liberated from
the tubes but by the decomposition of the latter ; and we accordingly find, after the
zoophyte has entirely disappeared from the surface of the stone on which it crept,
rows of these bodies occupying the place of the original polypidom, and mapping out
its several ramifications. Notwithstanding the apparently complete destruction of
the polypidom, the ova are found closely adherent to the substance to which the
zoophyte had been fixed. This would appear to be effected through the medium of
that portion of the tube to which they adhered ; for the remainder of the polypidom
becoming decomposed and washed away by the action of the water, this alone remains,
being protected on each side from the influence of external agents.
When the progress of development has gone on for a certain time in the ovum, the
faces of the disc separate from one another, each retaining that lamina of the rim
which is connected with it. The young zoophyte being now at liberty, in all proba-
bility enjoys a power of free locomotion in the surrounding element, not becoming
adherent till a subsequent period of its development. Though Dr. Allman has not
succeeded in obtaining it in this free state, the supposition is borne out by the circum-
stance of his having frequently found the empty shells adhering to stones without any
trace of the zoophyte; and also by the fact, that the change of state from the free to
the fixed commonly prevails, not only among the genuine polypifera, but among the
Ascidian Mollusca, an order of animals to which the subject of the present memoir
possesses a much closer physiological relation than what is found to exist between it
and the true polypes. i ae
Dr. Allman exhibited to the Section, specimens of an Annelid, which he discovered
some years ago in the bogs of the south of Ireland, and which was the cause of a
luminous appearance. It was closely allied to the earthworm: when irritated, it
gave out a phosphorescent light, which was also much increased when the animal
was exposed to the vapour of alcohol. The light was of the peculiar green colour
so usual on the phosphorescence of living animals. The Rey. F. B. Clarke had also
found these annelids in the bogs of Connaught.
List of the Insects found in the county of Cork. By W. CxiEar, F.L.S.
When it became known that the British Association was about to visit Cork, it was
proposed that lists of the Fauna and Flora of the county of Cork should be made
out, as far as circumstances would permit, and the preparation of the list of insects
devolved on Mr. Clear, as the only person who was known to have paid any attention
to the entomology of that district. The list is so extremely imperfect, that the author
desires it to be regarded only as a commencement. In it two orders, the Diptera and
Hemiptera, have been altogether omitted, and several families, particularly those of
minute size, have been scarcely noticed. ‘The absence of a list of the dipterous in-
sects is, however, the less to be regretted, as the insects of this order inhabiting the
northern portion of Ireland have been already elaborated by A. H. Haliday, Esq.
Mr. Clear’s list consisted principally of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.
Mr. Thompson, on behalf of Mr. Hyndman of Belfast, exhibited to the Section a
specimen of that singular annelid, which forms for itself a quill-like case, the Nereis
tubicola of Miiller, described and figured in the ‘ Zoologia Danica.’ ‘The present is
the first announcement of it as a British species. Three or four specimens were
dredged from a depth of forty fathoms, off Sana Island, on the western coast of Scot-
land, by Mr. Hyndman, in July 1842.—Mr. Thompson also read a description, drawn
up by Mr. Hyndman, of a species of hydrostatic Acalepha, taken in Belfast Bay, by
Edmund Getty, Esq. in August 1841. It is the first record of any species of the
family Physsophorida occurring in the British seas. The species being considered
new, has been named Apolemia Gettiana.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. vai
Dr. Allman read a paper ‘ On the genus Cirropteron, Sars.’—In this communication
it was maintained, that the genus Cirropteron had no real existence, having been
founded by Sars on the imperfectly developed condition of a gasteropodous mollusc.
Dr. Allman had himself bred from the ova of a gasteropodous molluse animals refer-
able to Sars’ genus; and the singular ciliated disks with which the larvz of buccinum,
trochus, &c. are furnished, have been noticed by other observers. Dr. Allman called
attention to the remarkable analogy which exists between these molluscan larve and
the Rotiferze, and advocated the necessity to the zoologist of an accurate knowledge,
not only of the anatomy of the various organized beings which come under his obser-
vation, but of their history during the entire period of their existence.
On a new Genus of Terrestrial Gasteropod. By Dr. ALLMAN.
This highly interesting animal was found last autumn in the county of Kerry by
Mr. Andrews of Dublin. Dr. Allman examined it, and convinced himself of its en-
tire generic distinctness and importance. It constitutes a connecting link between
Arion and Limax, differing from the former in the possession of a well-developed in-
ternal shell, and in the position of the genital pore, which is placed, as in Limax,
behind the root of the right small tentacle; and from the latter, in the orifice to the
respiratory sac being in the anterior margin of the shield, and in its truncated glandu-
liferous tail. To the new genus, which it was therefore necessary to constitute for
the reception of the gasteropod, Dr. Allman gave the name Geomalacus; and to the
present species, the only one of the genus as yet discovered, the specific name macu- -.. alin,
losus is appropriated.
Synopsis of the Genera and Species of Zoophytes inhabiting the fresh waters Beier
of Ireland. By Dr. ALLMAN.
The freshwater Zoophytes of Great Britain have hitherto been all included under
the following four genera, Hydra, Cristatella, Alcyonella, and Plumatella. Of these,
Hydra is made to include four British species,—Cristatella one, Alcyonella one, and
Plumatella has been described as containing three species. Of the above nine species,
the author was of opinion that two must be erased, viz. the Hydra verrucosa of Temple-
ton, which appears identical with H. fusca, and the Plumatella gelatinosa of Fleming,
which is evidently the same with Blumenbach’s Zubularia sultana. To the seven
species which remain, Dr. Allman was enabled to add five, of which four do not ap-
pear to have been before noticed, and the other is only found described in the Fauna
of the Continent. The zoophytes at present included under Plumatella were distri-
buted in the synopsis between two genera, those with crescentic discs being retained
under Plumatella, while those whose discs are circular were removed to /redericella,
a genus established by M. Gervais for this form of ascidian zoophyte. An important
addition now made to the British zoophytes is Paludicella, discovered by W. Thomp-
son, Esq. at Lough Erne, in the autumn of 1837, and since obtained abundantly by
Dr. Allman in the Grand Canal near Dublin. In October 1842, a hydroid zoophyte
of much interest was discovered by Dr. Allman in the Grand Canal, Dublin ; it is re-
ferable to no known genus, and occupies a position between Coryne and Hermia.
For the reception of this zoophyte, therefore, he has been obliged to form a new
genus, to which he has given the name Cordylophora. The synopsis, therefore, em-
peat several new species and two genera, now for the first time added to the British
‘auna.
On the occurrence of Calothrix nivea, and the Infusoria of sulphureous waters
at Cove, Ireland. By E. Lanxester, M.D., F.L.S., $e.
_ At previous meetings of the Association the author had given an account of the
occurrence of the Calothriz nivea, in most of the mineral springs of England and
Scotland, as well as in other localities where sulphuretted hydrogen was spontane-
ously formed. He had also found with this plant several species of Infusoria, inhabiting
sulphuretted hydrogen springs, some of these forming beautiful crimson deposits, at
the bottom of the springs from which the water flowed. He had recently found the
78 REPORT—1843.
Calothrix with the Infusoria, in the cavity of a rock on the sea-shore at Cove. As
there did not appear to be a spring of sulphuretted hydrogen in this district, the
author attributed the formation of this gas to the decomposition of the sulphates of
the sea-water in contact with the decaying vegetable matter at the bottom of the
cavity.
Mr. Mackay exhibited specimens of the Irish Saxifrages belonging to the Robert-
sonia or London Pride division, principally with a view of showing the kinds described
by him in ‘ Flora Hibernica;’ and more particularly to controvert a statement made by
Mr. Babington, in a paper published by him in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural
History’ for January 1842, that the Saxifraga umbrosa var. a. Flora Hibernica, the
common London Pride of the gardens, was not indigenous to Ireland. He showed
specimens taken from plants found by him on Connor Cliffs, near Dingle, in 1805,
exactly agreeing with the figure in the Flora of the Pyrenees, by Lapeyrouse, and the
London Pride of the gardens. He also exhibited specimens of the var. 6, the most
common appearance of the species on many of the Irish mountains, together with the
rare and distinct var. y. serratifolia, first found by him in the Gap of Dunloe, in 1805.
He likewise exhibited specimens of S. hirsuta, Linn., first found by him in the Gap of
Dunloe; also S. elegans, Mackay, found by him on Turk Mountain, Killarney, in the
same year with the two last; and four varieties of Sazifraga geum, also first found by
him in 1805, viz.— :
a, Leaves hairy on both sides, rather obtusely crenate, scarcely distinct from Robert-
sonia crenata of Haworth ; the mest common variety of the species in gardens.
&. Leaves glabrous on both sides, sharply crenate, Rabertsonia dentata, Haw. The
most common variety on the Kerry and Cork mountains. The first variety is only
found in low sheltered situations, and is very rare.
y. Leaves light green, glabrous and shining, Robertsonia polita of Haworth. Found
on Connor Hill, near Dingle, in 1805.
3. Gracilis, Mackay. Plant small and slender, like the other rotundato-reniform, very
small, hairy on both sides; flowers cream-coloured, spotless; scape slender.
Connor Hill, near Dingle, 1805.
N.B. All the species and varieties here noticed have been cultivated in the College
Botanic Garden for nearly forty years, and have not during that time become altered
in their appearance.
The Rev. W. Hincks called attention to two living specimens of the Neottia
gemmipara of Smith. This very rare plant had been discovered by Mr. J. Drum-
mond, in a salt marsh near Castleton Bearhaven, in the county of Cork, iu 1810,
From an imperfect specimen, Sir J. E. Smith had described and figured it, and it had
not been seen again till 1841, when ig was re-found by Dr. Sharkey. Only one spe-
cimen was again obtained, and it was with difficulty identified with the original spe-
cimen in the Linnean Herbarium in London, Dr. Wood and Dr. Harvey had, during
the past week, procured both living specimens, which were now on the table. The
plant belonged to Smith’s genus Neottia, but was now named Spiranthes.
Dr. Allman exhibited specimens of a Linaria which he had gathered in Ireland.
He believed it to be a new species, and had described it at a meeting of the Royal
Irish Academy. It had been supposed to be the Linaria Italica of Treviranus, which
had also been found in England, but this plant differed in many respects from L.
Italica. Dr. Allman then exhibited specimens of the very rare Trichomanes speci-
osum, and also of one discovered by Mr. Andrews of Dublin, which differed from it in
many points, and which might probably turn out a new species; the principal fea-
tures of difference that this fern presented were, the possession of bipinnate fronds,
long bristles, and the triangular form of its fronds: in all these points it differed from
T. speciosum,
The Rev. W. Hincks exhibited specimens of abnormal forms in the flowers of
Fuchsia. He remarked that there were two series; the first, in which the petals,
sepals and stamens were arranged in fives; the second, in which the sepals were
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79
in threes, whereas four is the normal number on which the parts of the flowers are
arranged in the whole order Onagracee. The primitive number of the parts, in
exogenous plants, is five. The first series, therefore, which exceeded the quaternary
arrangement of its flowers, might be looked upon as a return to the primitive number.
In the second series the number of parts was reduced by the adhesion of the parallel
edges of two sepals.
Account of a Luminous Appearance on the Common Marigold, Calendula
vulgaris. By Richarp DowDeEn.
This circumstance was noticed on the 4th of August, 1842, at eight p.., after a week
of very dry warm weather; four persons observed the phenomenon ; by shading off
the declining daylight, a gold-coloured lambent light appeared to play from petal to
petal of the flower, so as to make a more or less interrupted corona round its disk. It
seemed as if this emanation grew less vivid as the light declined; it was not ex-
amined in darkness, which omission will he supplied on a future occasion, It may
be here added, in the view to faciliate any other observer who may give attention to
this phenomenon, that the double marigold is the best flower to experiment on, as
the single flower “ goeth to sleep with the sun,” and has not the disk exposed for in-
vestigation.
Catalogue of the Plants found in the neighbourhood of Cork. By Dr.
Power.
Amongst rare plants found near Cork, were Medicago maculata and denticulata,
and Hypericum calycinum. Plants, which were not uncommon in other districts and
rare here, were also enumerated. The list contained 1425 plants, of which 624 were
Cryptogamic.
Mr. Thompson exhibited to the Section a number of specimens of the phanerogamous
and cryptogamous plants, of the county of Cork collected and named by Dennis
Murray, a working gardener, among them were three species new to the Flora of
Ireland, and twenty-two to that of Cork.
Mr. Babington presented three new aditions to the Flora of Cork. They consisted,
first, of Zrica Mackayii, which had been previously found only in Connemara; second,
the Erica cilians; and third, the Dabecia multifolia.
The Rev. W. Hincks read a communication from Dr, Wood, ‘ On the economical
uses of certain Lichens.’ The object of this paper was to draw attention to the fact
that the Lecanora tartarea and parella grew in abundance about Cork, and that the
collecting of these lichens as dyes might become a source of employment for the poor,
Specimens of the plants were then exhibited.
MEDICAL SCIENCE.
On a peculiar Disease of the Biliary Ducts. By Dr. OxxtrFz,
Tue affection to which he was about to call attention had never yet, he believed,
been described by any author, and was cf great importance, as it proved fatal in the
ease first brought under his notice. It occurred in the person of an officer who had
resided for many years in India, and during that time suffered from the “ Jungle Fe-
ver,” or a peculiar intermittent of the tertian type, which was afterwards renewed in
a slight form in Italy. Many years afterwards he was attacked by symptoms, not of
an aggravated character at first, such as slight nausea every morning, but not amount-
ing to vomiting, with debility. Then rigors of daily occurrence set in, followed by
fever, terminating in diaphoresis ; he seemed labouring under an attack of ordinary
intermittent fever. The periodical symptoms were removed by the administration of
quinine ; but the debility increased, with some tenderness over the region of the liver,
which appear to be hypertrophied, Notwithstanding the most careful treatment,
80 REPORT—1843.
conducted under the advice of the most eminent Parisian physicians, the patient died.
On a post-mortem examination, the viscera of the great cavities appeared perfectly
sound, with the exception of the liver, which was hypertrophied, but its general pa-
renchymatous structure seemed healthy, with the exception of the mucous membrane
of the biliary ducts, which was thickened, softened, and readily separable from the
tissue beneath it; the ducts were enlarged and filled with a quantity of pus, and this
through the whole organ, so that wherever an incision was made it oozed out. The
veins were particularly examined, and were found quite natural. The gall-bladder
was full of bile, mixed with pus. The mucous membrane of the entire alimentary
canal was healthy. For this disease Dr. Olliffe proposed the name of ‘‘ Purulent Ca-
tarrh of the Biliary Ducts;” and exhibited to the Section a cast, representing the con-
dition of the liver on dissection. The cast was formed of the new material used by
Dr. Felix Thibert of Paris, which possesses all the beauty of wax, and is much more
durable, under all circumstances of temperature and casual violence.
On the Means adopted by Nature in the Suppression of Hemorrhage from
Large Arteries. By Dr. Houston.
It was not the author's intention to go into an examination or statement of the
theories laid down on this subject, derived from experiments on the lower animals,
(these experiments, although they might solve some general question, were, he ob-
served, frequently deceptive when applied to a particular case in human pathology,)
but to state accurately the appearances he found in a very remarkable case which had
come under his observation and treatment. In it the entire arm had been suddenly
torn off. The patient, a stout, healthy man, had been caught by a belt in a mill and
thrown down with much violence ; the arm which was caught was entirely removed ;
the man got up and walked down three flights of ladders without knowing that he
had lost his limb. When removed to the hospital, the constitutional symptoms were
very slight; the stump was covered with grumous blood, and was much lacerated;
the nerves, particularly the median, hanging out several inches. There was no
hemorrhage, but a slight oozing. The brachial artery, when found, was tumified,
smooth and soft at the extremity; strongly jerked by the pulsation of the heart, but
not pouring out one drop of blood. For the prevention of fatal hemorrhage, a liga-
ture was applied, and subsequently amputation was performed at the shoulder-joint ;
on examining the artery below where the ligature was applied, the inner and middle
coats were found to be retracted fully half an inch within the external or cellular coat,
and the interval was filled with coagulated blood and cellular tissue in shreds. This
blood Dr. Houston deemed to be perfectly fluid when it came under his observation
first. The ‘ pursed-up” extremities of the inner coats retracted within the cellular
sheath, he believes to have been the efficient cause of the closure, so as to prevent a
fatal effusion of blood. A preparation of the artery taken from the removed stump,
slit up to show the condition of the coats, and a drawing of the parts in their recent
state, were exhibited to the Section.
On the Treatment of External Aneurism by Pressure. By Prof. Harrison.
The author alluded to the danger incurred in the usual mode of treatment by liga-
ture, notwithstanding all the improvements introduced by Hunter and Scarpa; it was
most desirable that another less hazardous mode should be adopted. He wished to
bring before the Section a case of successful treatment by pressure. This mode, he
Was aware, was not new, but he abstained from the attempt to arrest completely the
circulation in the aneurismal sac, which attempt caused the very danger arising from
ligature, namely, inflammation and sloughing ; in the revival of this method, the ob-
ject was by restraining the flow of blood through the sac, without interfering with the
collateral circulation, to fill the sac gradually with a coagulation, and thus procure its
obliteration, while the collateral circulation becoraing enlarged by degrees, the limb
will be supplied with its necessary quantity of blood. On this principle four cases had
been successfully treated this year in Dublin, the last of which having been under his
care, he laid it before the Section. The learned Professor then detailed the case at
length from the 9th of May, when it first came under treatment, to the 10th of Au-
gust, when the disease appeared to be completely removed. The instrument at first
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81
used was that described by Dr. Bellingham in the ‘Dublin Medical Journal.? The
pressure was made in the groin (the case being one of popliteal aneurism), and kept
applied for about an hour, at intervals, its degree being regulated by the patient him-
self. Inthe progress of the case the instrument was obliged to be changed, and one
known by the name of L’Estrange’s tourniquet was applied at a different point on the
limb, but this becoming irksome, a modification of the Carpenter’s clamp, suggested
by the patient himself, was used, and continued until the aneurismal swelling sub-
sided, and all pulsation had disappeared. The collateral circulation appeared well-
established, and the motions of the limb were unimpeded and free from pain. Al-
though the symptoms of the disease had disappeared, Prof. Harrison had recom-
mended the instrument to be continued for some time.
On the Deleterious Effects of Ginanthe Crocata. By Dr. PickeEtts.
This plant, he observed, was known to be one of the virulent poisons of the indi-
genous British Flora, but was stated to be very rare in Great Britain by Dr. Smith,
in the letter-press of ‘ Sowerby’s Botany ;’ this was by no means true as regarded
Ireland, particularly in Cork, and other southern countries, in which it grows in great
abundance. Dr. Pickells collected nearly thirty cases of death by eating the root, the
quantity in one instance not exceeding ‘the top of the finger ;” he described the
symptoms as exhibited by those cases,—insensibility, convulsions, locked jaw, delirium
and insanity ; and pointed out the proper mode of treating such cases, by detailing
several which were cured by the exhibition of strong emetics, diffusible stimulants,
enemata, &c. He concluded by making some observations on the poisons used by
the ancients in judicial executions ; he thought that this might have been the plant
used to destroy Socrates, and not the Coniwm maculatum of modern botany, and from
the symptom of insanity, he thought that this was the plant designated as the ‘in-
sane root” by the poet. This plant Dr. Pickells stated to be equally injurious to black
cattle and horses as to man ; he believed there was no direct antidote known; melted
butter was given in some of the cases which recovered, and is popularly deemed a
preservative against its effects. The root is frequently used as a discutient external
application to tumours, and many of the accidents have occurred by eating it when
gathered for this purpose.
New Instrument for the Removal of Calcult.
Dr. Houston exhibited to the Section a very ingenious instrument, invented by Sa-
muel M’Clean, Esq. of Dublin, for the removal of calculi after the operation of litho-
tomy by incision, when the calculus happens to be so large or so misshapen that the
__ ordinary forceps would be inapplicable for its extraction. The instrument consists of
a net attached to a circular spring, which admits, by an ingenious mechanism, of
being pulled into and protruded from a straight, hollow, silver cylinder of about one=
third of an inch in diameter. This cylinder is to be introduced into the bladder throngh
_ the incision, and when there, the net is to be thrown over the calculus by means of
the spring. The spring is then to be drawn again within the cylinder, and the whole
—cylinder, net, and calculus—removed in the same direction.
Description of the Sound useful for the Detection of Small Calculi.
By Dr. Brook.
On the Circulation of the Blood in Acardiac Feetuses. By Dr. Houston.
Dr. Young, Sir Astley Cooper, and Dr. Marshall Hall, held the opinion that the
_ circulation in an acardiac foetus was maintained by the action of the heart of the per-
_ fect foetus which accompanies it in utero, but this opinion was disproved by the fact
that such were not always found in twin cases, but occurred singly, as was proved by
Blandin and others; but even omitting such cases, Dr. H. argued, from theoretical
principles, that the efficient cause of the circulation must be the innate vital action of
the capillaries ; the existence of such a power, he contended, was shown in several
instances in comparative anatomy : in the earth-worm, the leech, and in the rudimen-
tary vessels of the chick in ovo. This was the power recognized by Alison under the
term “ vital attraction and repulsion.”
1843. G
82 REPORT—1843.,
On the treatment of Gangrene of the Lungs by Chloride of Lime, By Joun
Poruam, M.B., one of the Physicians to the North Cork Infirmary.
Dr. Popham made a communication to the Section, directing attention to the chlo-
ride of lime as a valuable remedy in this usually fatal disease. Gangrene of the lungs,
the writer observes, though of extremely rare occurrence, yet in his opinion is more
frequently met with in Ireland than in England ; and he accounts for it by the epi-
demics of typhus fever, combined with pneumonia, which occasionally visit Ireland.
In some very debilitated habits this dangerous complication terminates in gangrene
of the lungs. These cases almost universally defy the power of medicine, and are
complicated with such aggravated wretchedness, as almost to extinguish in the mind
the inherent love of life. Of three of these cases that he witnessed, he detailed at
large to the Section the symptoms during life, and the appearances after death, of one
that came under his notice in Sir Patrick Dunn’s Hospital, Dublin, in order to lay
down the distinctive featuves presented by the disease. In a case of the kind lately
occurring at the North Cork Infirmary, he was afforded an opportunity of giving his
testimony to the very few instances on record where medicine was of any avail. The
remedial agent used was the chloride of lime, lately recommended in putrid diseases
as palliating, where it does not cure the symptoms, and proposed in this affection by
Dr, Stokes of Dublin, and M., Andral of Paris, but hitherto unsupported by sufficient
records of cases where it had been used. The patient to whom it was given in the
Infirmary, was a case of neglected pneumonia. When admitted into the hospital,
after an illness of six weeks, during which time he tried to continue his occupation,
he presented the peculiar physiognomy of gangrene, the countenance, as Laennec de-
scribes it, of a leaden hue, without either physical energy or mental hope, The
expectoration consisted chiefly of a dark grumous matter, mixed with disorganized
shreds and clots of such a repulsive foetor, that after a violent fit of coughing it was so
diffusible that all the patients had to leave the ward. The usual remedies were at first
tried, such as bark with acids, wine and opium, without altering the aspect of the
disease, He was then placed on the internal use of the chioride of lime, and the im-
provement was most sudden and obyious, The appetite returned, the foetor of the
expectoration gradually ceased, the countenance brightened up again with hope, and
he was able, after using the remedy for six weeks, to return to his duties,
The chloride of lime was given in solution; six drachms of the saturated solution
were mixed with six ounces of mucilage, and a few drops of tincture of opium, of
which one ounce was taken every third hour. The writer concludes by observing,
that a remedy which can so greatly control the most intractable and repulsive sym-
ptoms of this disease, even though it should be ineffectual in the most adyanced stages
of it, is of value. In medicine, truly it may be said,—
Est aliquid prodire tenus, si non datur ultra.
For this object he laid it before the Medical Section of the British Association,
On Intestinal Obstruction. By J. F. Ovurrs, M.D., President of the
Parisian Medical Society.
He commenced by stating, that the principal object was to bring under the notice
of the British Association the operation for artificial anus, which had been recently per-
formed by Dr. Amussat of Paris, in cases where obstinate constipation had prevailed,
and where, but for the timely interposition of surgical aid, fatal consequences must
have ensued, He expressed it as his opinion, that in consequence of the innovation
lately introduced in the treatment of intestinal obstruction, many cases before regarded
as incurable would henceforward he brought to a successful termination, He added,
that he was influenced in bringing forward the subject of intestinal obstruction solely
by the desire to give more publicity, through the medium of the Transactions of the
British Association, to the best means of arresting the progress of the disease under
notice. ;
Having given an historical résumé of the operations which had been performed, with
a view to give issue to the accumulated fecal matter in the intestinal canal, and having ‘
passed successively in review those performed according to Lithé’s proceeding; by Pil-
lore, Dubois, Duret, Dessault, Fine, Freer, Pring, Miriel, Dupuytren, Reny, Velpeau, }
&c., the author proceeded to instance several cases which had occurred at different
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83
periods, from the time of Ruysh, in the seventeenth century, down to the present
period; and as precepts to guide the practitioner in his treatment, he laid down the
following propositions :—
J, In the great majority of cases, the cause of obstruction resides in the large in-
testines,
2, The lesion seldom occupies the caecum, the colon ascendens, or the arch of the
colon. It very generally affects the sigmoid flexure of the gut, the point of junction
of the sigmoid flexure with the rectum, or the rectum itself,
3. The anatomical lesion is not so frequently cancerous as is supposed,
4. In many cases represented as volvulus, intussusception, iliac passion, &c., the
obstinate and prolonged constipation proceeds from an organic stricture of the large
intestines.
5. When all medical means, such as purgatives, &c., have been resorted to without
ayail, no time should be lost in giving issue to the accumulated feces, by establishing
an artificial anus.
6. Calliscus’ operation, modified by Amussat, should be preferred to any other.
7. Mercury administered internally has never produced beneficial results,
8. In all cases of operation, the lesion of the peritoneum should, if possible, be
avoided.
9. The operation is equally applicable to adults and new-born infants.
The author next described the topographical anatomy of the lumbar region, and
showed that the colon may be opened in each lumbar space without wounding the
peritoneum, this membrane, in its reflection from the gut to the abdominal parietes,
eaving about one-third of the posterior surface of the intestines uncovered,
The indications of the operation were set down as follows :—
1, Sternal tympanitis, or accumulation of feces in the large intestines, proceeding
from an organic lesion of the intestinal coats, and producing a mechanical obstacle to
the passage of fecal matter.
2. Prolonged retention of the faeces, which determines their accumulation, without
_ depending on organic lesion,
_ 8. Schirrons or other malignant tumours of the large intestines, Here the treat-
ment is of course but palliative, but its effect, in many cases, is the prolongation of
life for years.
: 4. Imperforation of the anus, with absence of the lower part of the gut.
The modus operandi, as practised by Amussat, was next described.
_ The differential diagnosis of the maladies which cause intestinal obstruction was
then sought to be established, and the author concluded by exhibiting to the Associa-
tion several original drawings and diagrams illustrative of his subject : those drawings
are to form part of a forthcoming work by Amussat,
_ Abstract of a paper on the proximate cause of death after the spontaneous in-
troduction of Air into the Veins. By Joun EH, Ericusen.
The writer having given at length the various theories intended to explain this
aceident, states his opinion of their being far from satisfactory or free from objections,
and proceeds to take them up seriatim, and combat their several principles, adducing
several experiments that he had made, on the result of which it was that he disputed
the validity of the causes assigned. These fully proved that death does not ensue
_ from any functional derangement in the heart from distentic or poisonous influence,
as that organ carries on its action subsequent to that event. They also show that air
_ seldom or never enters the vessels of the brain, consequently death cannot be attri-
buted to congestion of the cerebral organs. The writer next gives a history of a new
_ Series of experiments which he performed, and from which he deduces the following
conclusions :—
E First, that the primary arrest of the circulation takes place in the capillaries of the
7s
~ lungs, or in the terminal branches of the pulmonary artery, in consequence of the
- right ventricle being unable to overcome the mechanical obstacles presented by the air
bubbles in the vessels of these organs.
Second, that respiration and animal life cease in consequence of a deficient supply
of arterial blood to the central organs of the neryous system. The author next
G2
84 REPORT—1843.
proceeds to give the best means of preventing the spontaneous introduction of air
into the veins, and when it does occur, the best line of treatment to be adopted: the
former he considers to be effected by tightly bandaging the chest and abdomen, in
operations where it is likely to occur. The rationale of this is obvious, as it is only in
respiration that the air can enter, by keeping the breath as shallow as possible, the
danger is considerably lessened or averted. In the latter he recommends compressing
the veins, so as to prevent the further ingress of the air; this, with artificial inflation
of the lungs by some other more remedial means, he considers sufficient to prevent a
fatal termination.
On the Statistical Results of Amputation. By My. Cronin.
The peculiarities of about twenty cases, with the results and brief observations,
were communicated from a Report drawn up ina tabular form, He said he brought
the subject forward from the desire which now exists to have uniformity in the mode
of keeping hospital reports, and the results of such reports, he believed, would be
much more valuable if exhibited in a uniformly constructed table ; as a specimen of
such a table he communicated his cases.
On the Sudden Falling off of the Hair of the Head, Eyebrows and Eyelashes
from Fright. By Dr. O'Connor.
The writer thonght the infrequency of such cases a justification for bringing the
present one before the notice of the British Association, not having been able to find
on record any such striking example.
The case is as follows: Daniel McCarthy, the son of a farmer resident near Kinsale,
aged 12 years, in perfect health, was seized at night with a sudden fit of screaming,
which alarmed the entire family. He stated the cause of his terror to have been, that
he dreamed two men were dragging him from the house to murder him. On the
next day the hair began to fall off in great quantities, and before a fortnight he was
completely bald, and not a hair remained on his eyebrows or eyelashes. He continues
in this state still, though seven years have elapsed, and enjoys perfect health.
On a Rare Case of Midnifery which occurred in the Cork South District
Lying-in Hospital in July 1843. By Dr. WuErtanp.
The leading peculiarities were, a case of twins: first child ; feet and funis presen-
tation ; head arrested above the brim of the pelvis by head of second child occupying
the cavity. Dr. Wherland applied forceps on head of second child and delivered it
first, ative anp wext, First child was still-born ; no effort on part of mother effected
any good, the impaction being very great, the two heads mutually opposing one an-
other; both children were of the usual size common to twins.
Statistical Returns of the North Cork Infirmary during a period of we Years,
from July 1838 to June 1843. By Joun Poruam, M.B., Trinity College,
Dublin, one of the Physicians to the Infirmary.
Abstract of Tables,
Total number of patients admitted during five years .....+0...... 4330
Total number of deaths in the same time.........sscecccseseeeeees 272
Patients admitted moribund—dying within twenty-four hours... 27
Proportion of deaths to number of patients, not deducting mo-
ribund cases ....... FES TR IS Sd ccteeve ait pers See Lin 158
Total of patients admitted in winter MOnths...........sescesseees Bi AS San lee Serie
Total of deaths in same MONths ..........sceeecseceeneeseeeeeoeeeeeses og pf oF | img
Total of patients in the three spring months, viz. March, April,
IMAy Wider t ees s.'ccss.credes stacessees “abasaiPeda Pree eer ccd 7a ees: ;
Total of deaths in same months ...........scceeececeeenceccceeesceses 69 for Lin late
UANIDUSE ecacthest.dvcaecesce ces SEC aSeey BEL oiiod docmonctc: Deonscees 1066 }
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85
Total of patients in three autumn months, viz. September, Octo-
ber, November............5++ Lipdventusebe Memnetenecisenss cesses yy 42 1100 fo 1 in 20
Total of deaths in same Months ...scsccssecssececsccvensscceesesceeecs 58
Greatest mortality in the month of January, being |] in 10; February, 1 in 11;
March, | in 12; December, 1] in 13.
Mean mortality in the month of May, 1 in 14; November, 1 in 16; April, 1 in 18;
June, 1 in 19.
Least mortality in the month of July, 1 in 26; August, 1 in 26; October, 1 in 25;
September, 1 in 19; showing the great influence of season in the termination of life.
It is to be observed that the majority of deaths were in chronic diseases.
Of medical diseases, the most fatal were phthisis and dropsy ; of phthisis there were
29 fatal cases, nearly 3 of the whole.
_ Most fatal months for consumptive patients were January and May, equal, each 5 ;
next were February, June, and December, each equal, viz. 4; March, July, and Oc-
tober, 2 each ; April, 1 dead. No deaths from consumption in August, September,
and November. The three winter months were half the whole amount of deaths
from phthisis.
It is remarkable that the months of March and April, popularly considered the
most trying to consumptive patients, were not so in this table; the patient however
may feel their ungenial influence and sink rapidly after they have passed ; hence pro-
bably the mild months of May and June were so fatal in this disease.
Peculiarity of age.—It occurred earlier in-females than in males, and in advanced
life later in males. Thus, three of the females were under 20, none over 40; none
of the males were under 20, five were over 40. Liability to the disease in females lies
very much within the limits of the period of reproduction. Of the twenty-nine cases,
16 were males, 13 females.
Dropsical diseases were among the most frequent and fatal.
Cases of ascites with disease of liver ............ssceccssseseetesenenes « 15
Dropsy, with Bright’s disease of kidney and anasarca.......... veoae) LO
Hydrothorax and anasarca ........ssccsecsseeeeeeeees septs sss secceeee LL
Total...... Srenancintee 36
Of these, 21 were males, 15 females. Dropsy is not a disease of early life, 3 cases
only under thirty years ; 1 a girl of seventeen, with disease of kidney ; 2 with enlarged
spleen. Most of the cases of diseased liver were caused by the abuse of spirituous
liquors and improper food. Ovarian dropsy is rare, but one case occurred.
Next class of diseases in the order of fatality involve inflammation of some part of
the intestinal canal.
Cases of inflammation of stomach and small intestines.......ececeees 10
Diarrhea ...... Soe ent es Weiatocetawe xeteualnse an LRontn Set wat Saas natives RL
Dysentery .....sssscsseeseee canasnaeamart eedusatones Econ A Enact eeasgbonds 7
Total. wusvedsctweas ace 28
Of these, 16 were females, 11 males ; showing a greater liability in females to these
_ diseases,
The cases of diarrhea occurred generally in elderly persons, and were accompanied
__ with general decay of the constitution. In ordinary cases it could often be traced to
@ noxious fish diet.
Dysentery, formerly so fatal in this city, has greatly declined of late years, only
seven fatal cases occurring in the infirmary during five years. This is one of the
diseases which improved civilization has banished. It was caused in particular lo-
% calities by unwholesome water: at present there is no city provided with better
water than Cork.
Next fatal disease is chronic bronchitis, Number of deaths 10.
Senile cough is one of the most frequent diseases met with, but it is very pro-
_ tracted, and generally merges into other diseases, being seldom fatal by itself.
Diseases of heart are not so common among the lower ranks in this as in other
countries ; but four cases are recorded in the registry where disease of the heart ex-
isted without being secondary to other diseases.
Of surgical diseases, most fatal were burns and scalds.
MGtal of dently from, burns.) .cc.:divisslacavabsvorccavetevecaces cduedaues vow
86 REPORT—1843.
Of these, 12 occurred at or before the age of five years, and 5 between that and
ten; showing the great fatality of these accidents in early life. One case was an
adult, 2 between forty and fifty, and 2 between fifty-five and seventy.
Immediate cause of death in these cases.—| from tetanus, | from gangrene, and
20 from the shock received by the system. The dependent condition of the Irish
poor, requiring them so often to commit the charge of infants to children in their
absence, is the chief cause of this accident. In 7 cases death occurred within twenty-
four hours from the accident.
Amputations—17 capital; 7 of leg; 5 of thigh; 3 of fore-arm; 1 of arm; 1 of
shoulder-joint ; minor amputations not included.
Diseases requiring amputation.—3 cases of compound fracture of the leg; 1 ditto
of arm; 2 of hand followed by gangrene; | disunited fracture of humerus; 5 .cases
of white-swellings of knee and wrist ; 1 case gangrene of both lower extremities after
fever; ] exostosis of tibia. Of these, 13 cases were successful; 4 were fatal ; viz.
1 of leg, and 3 of thigh.
Causes of death.—In 1 case gangrene, in another a chain of abscesses up the limb;
in 2, hectic fever with suppuration. The case of amputation at the shoulder-joint was
dismissed cured in six weeks.
Fractures.—Total admitted, 277.
Fractures of lower extremities —Leg 81; thigh 41; neck of thigh-bone I]; pa-
tella 6; parts of foot 6. Total 145.
Fractures of upper ditto—Arm 32; fore-arm 7 ; olecranon 2; scapula 2; parts of
hand 15. Total 58.
Fractures of head.—Cranium 26; orbit]; jaw 5; nose 6.
Fractures of trunk.—Ribs 23; clavicle 1]; sternum 1; vertebra 1. Total 74.
Deaths from fractures were 18; viz. compound fractures of lower extremities 5 ;
compound fractures of patella 2; 1 case of fracture of cervical vertebra, and 7 of skull ;
3 cases of fracture of the ribs with wound of lungs.
In the three latter cases death occurred in | case within thirty-six hours, in the
other after four and six days.
In the case of fractured vertebrz, death occurred after eighteen hours.
In fractures of the skull, death does not seem to come on in any ascertainable pe-
riod ; | case of fracture of base of the skull with rupture of blood-vessels lived nine
hours ; another twelve hours ; while a boy, with a similar fracture and effusion, lived
thirteen days ; and a child of two and a half years, with depression, lived twenty days.
The next fatal disease was erysipelas ; an epidemic of this complaint existed in
1838 and 1839; while this epidemic lasted, which was during a year and a half, 137
cases were treated in hospital, and li cases were fatal, or 253. During the following
three years and a half 45 cases were treated, and 5 cases died, or 3. Hence the dis-
ease was relatively less fatal when epidemic. This probably was owing to its con-
tinuing in the hospital when it had abated in the city, and also to its attacking the
worst cases. As a sccondary affection it was most fatal in wounds of scalp, ulcers of
lower extremities, and syphilis.
Of the 182 cases treated, 88 were females, 94 males. i
Of the deaths, 6 were females, 10 of the other sex. Age seemed to exercise consi- —
derable influence over it, as it spared children, but usually attacked persons of middle _
or advanced life ; thus only 26 cases were at or under twenty years ; 78 from twenty to
forty ; and 78 cases from forty to seventy. The number of males, in very early or very
advanced life, was relatively greater than that of females, while the latter had the
preponderance in middle life. Since the cholera, the epidemic of erysipelas has been —
the only severe disease of a migratory nature that has visited Cork; during its con-
tinuance, and subsequently, continued fever has been less frequent and of a mild type.
Diseases that were once frequent now extinct, viz. intermittent fever. ;
Diseases rarely met in Cork and its vicinity, viz. calculus of the bladder and —
bronchocele. Neighbourhood is limestone ; lime is deposited in culinary vessels from —
the water, d
Diseases rarely met with from moral reasons, viz. delirium tremens. Tempe~ —
rance has lately modified various diseases, accidents especially ; in 1839, 71 cases —
of fracture were admitted; in 1842, only 39.
Suicide.—Three cases of attempted suicide occurred in five years, 2 of these were
ee ee, ee
SP
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87
fatal, throat being deeply incised ; one in which a quantity of arsenic was taken res
covered. Suicide is a crime of rare occurrence among the Irish poor, as well from
their strong religious feelings, as from the agricultural nature of their pursuits and
habits. Suicide seldom exists among persons whose wants are few and easily gra-
tified, and in whose minds hope is always predominant.
Cerebral diseases much less frequently occur among the poor than diseases of the
lungs or abdomen. In these the brain is not so heavily taxed as with persons in the
higher walks of life. Five deaths occurred in hospital from affections of the brain.
Diseases most common, are such 4s arise either from sudden vicissitudes of the
weather, or food with little nutriment: they are rheumatism, bronchitis, chronic
diseases of stomach, and diarrhea.
On a peculiar case of Sterility. By Dr. M’EveErs.
On the Tests for Arsenic. By Dr. Bevan.
He pointed out the difficulties and unsatisfactory results in the modes of detecting
that poison hitherto used in medico-legal investigations ; even Marsh’s test; he said,
failed in giving a quantitative result. In conclusion, he proposed a new method of
testing, which, he said, had the advantage of extreme simplicity in its manipulation,
and certainty in its result. Into a narrow glass bottle he introduced dilute nitric acid
(1 part acid to 4 of water) until it was half-full; into this he introduced a clean cop-
per rod, and on the surface of the acid he poured melted tallow, which, when concrete,
formed a diaphragm between the immersed and free portions of the rod. On this dia-
phragm he poured the solution of arsenic, and within six hours metallic arsenic was
deposited on the upper portion of the rod; this test will detect the z35th of a grain.
A zine rod will give the result more rapidly.
STATISTICS.
Statistical Report of the Parish of St. Michael. By Major N. L. Bramisu.
Tue parish of St. Michael comprehends the district generally known under the
name of the “ Peninsula of Blackrock,”’ being bounded on the north and east sides
by the river Lee, on the south by the tributary stream of Tramore, which forms with
the confluence of the tide the “ Douglas Channel,” and on the west by the town
parishes of St. Nicholas and St. Finn Barr, the former meeting it about one mile from
the city of Cork. It contains 1929 acres, or three squate miles and nine acres ; the
whole population in April 1843, was 2,630, consisting of 457 families, living in 413
houses ; sixty-one houses are uninhabited, and nine are in progress of building. Of
this population 2187 are Roman Catholics, and 443 Protestants, including Dissenters,
being a proportion of nearly five to one in a district much inhabited by Protestant
gentry. The Catholic males number 1042, females 1145; Protestant males 197,
females 246; 800 males and 900 females are over fourteen years of age; 439 males,
and 491 females are under that age; ninety families are living in one room to each
family, 260 in two rooms, and 207 in three or more rooms to each family ; the average
number of persons to a bed is three. The whole number of the gentry is 372, leaving
the number of the working classes 2258; of these 1125 are males, and 1133 are
females, which may be thus classified :—
Males.—Carpenters, 15; masons, 14; slaters, 12; tailors, 10; shoemakers, 14;
smiths, 9; coopers, 3; cabinet-makers, 2; gardeners, 32; farmers, 53; gingle-dri-
vers, 13; lime-burners, 18; brickmakers, 55; fishermen, 111 ; male servants, 79;
labourers, 212; aged and infirm, 46; children, 426.—Total males, 1125.
Females—Employed as servants, in field work, &c., 372; children and aged and
infirm, 453; unemployed, but able to work, 308.—Total females, 1133.
In the above enumeration are not included the inmates of the Ursuline Convent,
numbering 50 nuns, 80 boarders, and 20 servants ; Mr. Rudkin’s academy, contain-
ing 26 Protestant males; and Miss Bergin’s academy, containing 16 Protestant
emales.
88 . REPORT—1843.
One hundred and thirteen of the working classes hold land varying from a quarter
of an acre to seven acres, at an average yearly rent of 3/. per acre, exclusive of poor
rate and county rate; the former of which may be averaged at ls. 10d. and the
latter at 5s. 10d. per acre annually. ‘Those holding under Jeases are also subject to
the payment of tithe, which averages 2s. per acre, but this is not now very strictly
enforced from the small holder in this parish, the landlord being at present respon-
sible to the minister.
The soil is generally excellent, and capable of bearing the finest wheat crops; the
course of tillage pursued by the working farmer is potatoes and wheat alternately ;
the former being manured, but so indifferently, and the general preparation of the
land being so imperfectly performed, that the potatoe crop seldom yields more than
seven tons, or the wheat crop more than six barrels of twenty stone, or three and a
half English quarters to the acre, being not more than two-thirds of the produce of
the same description of land under a proper system of tillage. Great ignorance, or
an indolent adherence to old habits, is exhibited in the application of the manure,
which is often left for days exposed in small heaps to the action of the atmosphere,
and consequently to the loss of its most fertilizing properties by evaporation. Many
of the labouring classes hire small portions of manured land from the gentry for the
purpose of speculating in early potatoes, which, if productive, and at the ordinary ave-
rage price, yield them a fair profit. Such portions of land, varying from } to 3 acres,
let at the rate of 10/. to 12/. per acre, which, although apparently high, often yield
a profit of 6/. to 8/. per acre. But of late years the produce of potatoe ground has been
very uncertain, and when the crop fails, either the poor tenant becomes a severe loser,
or fails to make good his agreement with the proprietor: generally the emergency is
met by abatements on the part of the landlord.
The number of men and boys able to work, and dependent upon work for subsist-
ence, is 653; of these 370 are employed, and 283 unemployed. A great portion of
the latter subsist on the earnings of some member of the family who is employed ;
others support themselves in a temporary manner by pledging or selling part of their
effects, and others on the alms of the benevolent. The workhouse is the last resource,
and although at the present moment 283 males, and 308 females, or more than one-
fourth of the working population, are without the means of earning their livelihood,
only three persons belonging to the parish are in the Cork Union Workhouse.
Wages.—Tradesmen’s wages average 20s. per week. Labouring men receive
5s.10d.; women 8s., and children 2s.; but many able-bodied men work for 5s. per week.
For particular kinds of labour, such as quarrying, the wages are 7s. per week, and
lime-burners receive 10s., in consideration of being employed by night. From the
superabundance of labour, wages do not, as formerly, rise in time of harvest, and
ood reapers can be had at the present moment at the ordinary average of 1s. per day.
Food, Clothing, &c.—The food of the poorest labourer consists of potatoes and
milk, or potatoes and salt fish, the cost of which is about 93d. per head per week, or
4s. 8d. per week for a family of six. A considerable number, however, namely, 1900,
or more than five-sixths of the whole working population, use bread and meat occa-
sionally : 1200, or more than one-half, once a week; and 700 twice a week. The
average cost of food of the whole is 1s. 7d. per head per week, or 9s. 6d. per week for
a family of six persons. The precarious condition of the fishermen is much to be
deplored. According to a late act of parliament, they are prevented from fishing
nearly one-half the year, and are often unsuccessful at other periods; they can con-
sequently seldom put by anything to meet emergencies, and only three Blackrock
fishermen have deposits (averaging 7/. each) in the Savings’ Bank,
The cost of clothing annually is 18s. per head for a family of six; of coal 9d. per
week for the same number; 1200 men and 800 women, or nearly nine-tenths of the
working population, wear shoes and stockings ; 320 have one or more pigs ; 290 out of
the 413 inhabited houses have pigsties; 230 only are furnished with privies, and the
want of sewers, drains, water-shoots, and appropriate means for carrying away dirt
and drainage from the houses of the labouring poor, are great impediments to their
cleanliness. One of their greatest wants is that of wholesome water, as well for
drinking as domestic purposes. There are only two public pumps, and these of hard
water, about a mile apart, in the parish, but the water in one of them is so indifferent
in quality as at times to be scarcely available for any domestic purpose, and the poor
of this part of the parish are frequently obliged to provide themselves from a spring on
ie
-
&
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89
the opposite bank of the river, at the distance of a mile, and at a great sacrifice of
time and labour. 336 of the working classes receive assistance from the Cork Loan
Bank, the average amount of each loan being 2/. 10s. ; 38 have deposits in the Savings’
Bank, averaging 10/. each ; 300 have articles pledged, the amount of the united pledges
of each individual averaging 2/.; 300 are in arrear of rent, at an average of 3/.; the
whole amount of arrear is 9007.
Education.—190 Roman Catholic males attend the Blackrock National School;
165 Roman Catholic females attend Mrs. Murphy’s Free School in Ballintemple ;
181 Roman Catholic females attend the Convent Free School; 80 Roman Catholic
males and females attend Mrs. Meade’s school at Ballinlough; 37 Protestant males
and females attend the Protestant Free School in Ballintemple; 26 Protestant males
attend Mr. Rudkin’s academy, Blackrock; 16 Protestant females attend Miss
Bergin’s academy, Blackrock.
Thus more than two-thirds of the children of the working classes, under 14 years
of age, are in progress of education; 142 children pay for their education an average
yearly sum of 3/. Of the 457 families into which the population is divided, and 87
of which alone are gentry, 435 families possess books, and 236 the Bible.
The moral condition of the working classes is extremely good; the only crimes
committed are petty larcenies, and there are only two illegitimate children in the
parish. Habits of intemperance, as regards intoxicating liquors, are little known, nor
ean this be attributed—unless, perhaps, by the influence of example—to the temper-
ance or total abstinence system, for out of the whole working population of 2258,
only 160 males and 60 females, or less than one-tenth, are members of the Tem-
perance Society.
The large proportion of unemployed persons, particularly females, among the work-
ing classes of this district, is much to be deplored, and demands the attention of the
benevolent. It may be mainly attributed to the large proportion of land under pas-
ture in the demesnes of the gentry, which thus limits the field-work to little more
than one-fourth of the area of the parish. There is no manufactory or public work,
with the exception of small lime-works and brick-making, which employ but a very
limited number of persons, the latter for only three months of the year.
On the Irish Silk Manufacture. By Dr. W. C. Taytor.
Dr. Taylor commenced by stating that the silk manufacture was introduced into
Treland by the French refugees, whom the revocation of the Edict of Nantes com-
pelled to abandon their country. There are no certain records for fixing the precise
date when silk weaving was commenced in Dublin, but it is generally believed that an
ancestor of the present respected family of the Latouches commenced the weaving of
tabinets or poplins and tabbareas in the liberties of Dublin about the year 1693. A
eat and fatal error was made by the new settlers in the very outset of their career ;
they adopted the principle of excluding the native Irish from the benefit of all the
improved arts which they introduced, refusing to receive any of them as apprentices.
The manufacture was consequently an exotic forcibly prevented from taking root in
the soil, and deriving its support chiefly from a system of artificial patronage. So
weak, indeed, was it, that, in 1733, the Ivish manufacturers of silks and stuffs waited
on Archbishop Boulter, who then virtually ruled Ireland, to obtain his influence in
passing a law to prohibit the wearing of East India goods. In the year 1764, an act was
passed to place the silk trade under the direction of the Dublin Society, as far as it
extended within two miles anda half round the Castle, and the Society was empowered
to make such laws and regulations for its management as they should deem necessary.
It has been generally asserted, that under this system of management the silk trade
attained a high degree of prosperity; in a paper furnished to the Hand-Loom Com-
missioners, it was stated that in the year 1775 there were 3400 looms in Dublin in
full employment. That this return is grossly exaggerated will appear obvious from
the following considerations. In the thirteen years, from 1752 to 1764, the average
imports of silk into Ireland were
15,760 lb. Manufactured.
48,132 lb. Raw.
275 1b. Riband.
90 ’ REPORT—1843.
In the period, from 1765 to 1777, when the bounty system was in full operation, the
following were found to be the averages—
18,200 lb. Manufactured.
45,990 lb. Raw.
1,060 lb. Riband.
That is, the imported fabrics had increased, while the raw material, to be worked up
in Ireland, had diminished. This decline appears to have continued, and, in fact, we
find, from Parliamentary documents, that in 1784 there were only 800 silk-weavers at
work in Dublin, and that even these were not all in constant employment. In 1786 Par-
liament withdrew its support from the Society’s silk warehouse. The trade was alto-
gether suspended by the insurrection of 1798, and in 1800 it was deemed necessary
to protect it by a duty of ten per cent. on the introduction of foreign and British
silks. Soon after this, the silk manufacture began to be established in Lancashire and
Cheshire, while in Ireland the trade was severely injured by combinations and trades-
unions; several excellent workmen, unable to endure the arbitrary regulations esta-
blished by these self-constituted bodies, removed to England, and, at this hour, there
are more Irish than English engaged in silk-weaving at Macclesfield. In 1826 the
protecting duties expired, and as the silk-weavers refused to modify their arbitrary
laws so as to meet the altered circumstances of the times, the whole silk-weaving was
destroyed as a branch of industry in Dublin. The poplin or tabinet manufacture, in
which the weft is worsted, is always classed with the silk-trade in the returns made to
the Irish Parliament. ‘There are at present about 280 men and 70 women engaged
in the poplin manufacture, assisted by 150 children employed in winding the bobbins
or quills for the shuttles, at ages varying from 7 to13 years. As the poplin manu-
facture is a yery limited branch of industry, the Society of Operative Weavers has
been able to maintain a fixed and uniform rate of prices for several years; and the
master manufacturers generally concur in the system, because in an article of limited
consumption, the use of which is exclusively confined to the wealthier classes of the
community, if is of far greater importance to maintain the acknowledged superiority of
the article than to produce it at a lower cost. The greatest improvements in the
manufacture have resulted from the introduction of the Jacqtiatd loom, and from a
machine of recent invention for introducing a variety of colours in fancy brocading by
a more effective process than that which was anciently employed. In what are called
French poplins, cotton is very freely introduced, and though they are thus ren-
dered much cheaper than the Irish, they are obviously inferior in richness and
beauty, and they have been found still more so in permanence of colour and durability
of material. The Irish poplins are highly esteemed abroad, and they are occasionally
ordered in limited quantities for the principal continental courts, the United States of
America, and the East and West Indies. Silk has not been thrown in Dublin since
the year 1837; it is chiefly imported from England, and the consumption of organzine
is estimated at about 18,0001b. annually. There are about 240 poplin looms in Dublin,
20 velvet, and a few furniture tabbareas ; so that the poplin may be regarded as the only
branch of the silk-manufacture which has a healthy existence in Ireland. It has been
already stated, that the high price of the fabric must always restrict the manufacture
of poplin within what large mill-owners would consider exceedingly narrow limits,
particularly as it is believed impossible to apply power successfully to this species
of weaving.
On the Pauper Lunatics of Ireland, from materials supplied by the Earl of
Devon. By Dr. W. C. Taytor.
Before the year 1817, a few cells in gaols and houses of industry were the only
accommodation provided for lunatics; but in various parts of Ireland, and more
especially in Kerry, certain secluded glens, called madmen’s glens, were, by the tacit
consent of the peasantry, set apart for the use of idiots and the insane. In 1817 dis-
trict lunatic asylums were formed, and placed under the superintendence of govern-
ment officers. A table was exhibited of the districts for which these hospitals were
established, the population of these districts, and the number of patients admitted from
the contributory counties; but as these give insufficient accommodation, cells for the
insane are connected with several of the old houses of industry, where proper medical
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91
treatment of the insane, however, is utterly impossible. The author strongly con-
demned the system of confining lunatics in houses of industry, or, which is still worse,
in gaols. By an act passed in the first session of the present reign, power is given to
two justices of the peace, acting under the advice of a physician, to commit to gaol,
or confine in a lunatic asylum, any oné thought to be in a state of mind threatening
mischief. It would seem that this statute has operated more widely than could have
been atiticipated by its framers. From the Sixteenth Report of the Inspectors-Gene-
ral of Prisons, it appears, that so recently as the year 1837, there were but thirty-
seven insane patients confined in the gaols of Ireland. But in 1840 the number of
lunatics confined in the gaols of Ireland had increased to 110; and within the last
two years the number has doubled, there being now 240 lunatics and idiots in the
gaols of Ireland. There are also 471 idiots and lunatics at present confined in sixty-
nine workhouses.
At the opening of the Section on Tuesday, the Secretary informed the meeting
that in consequence of a communication which had been received from his Excelleney
the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Capt. Lareom,; R.E., would commence business by
laying the Report of the Census of Ireland for 1841 on the table, and giving an
account of the manner in which it had been taken. He then reada note from his
Excellency’s Secretary; which stated that his Excellency, desirous of promoting
science, had allowed a copy of the unpublished Census of 1841 to be forwarded to
the Association.
Capt. Larcom said, that he was appointed in 1841 a Commissioner of the Census in
Ireland, and as the publication of the Ordnance Memoirs was then suspended, he
seized the opportunity of collecting statistical information. Under the head of social
economy the cominissioners included every matter of interest that bore on the state of
the country and its inhabitants; and the result is, that the present census has more
the aspect of a statistical document than returns of the kind have had before. Care
has been takeri to distinguish between natural families and the domestic groups formed
of the former with associated inmates, ‘The dwellings, too, have been carefully
classified ; and the people generally have been considered, not under the usual head
of agriculturists and manufacturers, but under the three heads, workmen, master
workmen, and employers. The chief results of the census are, in numbers, as fol-
lows :—The population of Ireland is 8,175,124, of whom 4,019,576 are males, and
4,155,548 females. These persons live in 1,472,739 social families, and are dwelling
in 1,328,839 houses.
Of these persons 2,765,212 males ‘
. 2,662,023 females \ are unmarried.
1,142,628 males ‘
1,181,095 females } eae yaa
And 111,786 males P
312,420 females \ Bae whaGwen:
The edueation varies from the cotnty of Antrim, in which there are twenty-one per
cent. of males, and twenty-three per cent. of females who can neither read nor write,
to the county of Mayo,'in which there are seventy-three per cent. of males, and eighty-
seven per cent. of females, in the like deplorable state of ignorance. ‘The number of
houses compared with the population, does not appear at first sight very dispropor-
tionate, but when the houses are divided into classes, according to their quality and
the number of families they respectively accommodate, the result is, that nearly half
the families of the rural population, and more than one-third of the civic population;
are found to be living in the lowest state, viz. a cabin of a single room. In the next
class, but little superior in comfort, are about the same proportion; and the number
living in the better classes are but sixteen per cent. in the towns, and thirty per cent.
in the civic districts. The tables of ages are much disturbed by the amount of emi-
gration for the last twenty years; which amount of emigration is very uncertain, from
the great number of Irish who sail from English ports, where, of course, no separate
registry of them is kept; but from the best information attainable, it amounted,
between 1821 and 1841, to 538,285; and 39,179 recruits for the army have been raised
in Ireland during that time. It was necessary to inquire into these numbers, in order
to account for the apparently small increase of the population during the last ten
92 REPORT—1843.
years, which is only five per cent., whereas during the former ten years it was stated
to have been fourteen per cent. There are some grounds for supposing that it was
not really so great as fourteen per cent. between 1821 and 1831, and when due
allowances are made for emigration and other draughts on the Irish population,
especially to more profitable labour in England than their own country afforded, the
real increase between 1821 and 1831 appears to have been twelve per cent., though
only five per cent. remained in Ireland on the 5th of June 1841. The number of
persons of Irish birth dwelling in Great Britain is 419,256, being 1 in 54 of the
population of these parts of the empire, while of the natives of Great Britain dwelling
in Ireland there are but 30,137, or 1 in 271 of its population. It ought to be stated
in connexion with education, that the number of children at school was, at the time
the census was taken, 502,950 of both sexes. It is difficult to find any document
with which to compare these numbers, as all the returns give the number of “ children
on the poll,” instead of the number actually attending, and the only documents which
even with this defect embrace the schools of the whole kingdom are the census of
1821—
Which gave. <.csscscrercenses see dentanaeanen ee Saeeesdensers ab sel ee cocsseee 394,813
Return of 1824, Commission of Inquiry for general instruction... 509,150
Census of 1834, by Commission for religious and public instruction 681,000
GCencusiot d84 le) teasesechcedesce dacesscns coe sdecdesns Seep sce at eciee sora 502,950
and of these the second and third are professedly of children on the poll. Thus the
number in 1841 was only about one quarter of the children who were at that time
between the ages of five and fifteen. It is true that this proportion is altogether very
small, ‘but as the time that the children of the humbler classes remain at school is
very short, it is not impossible but that even with this small number at one time, all
may, during some portion of the long period of ten years, be receiving elementary
instruction.
On certain Public Conveyances established in Ireland. By Mr. B1ancont.
Up to the year 1815, the public accommodation for the conveyance of passengers
in Ireland was confined to a few mail and day coaches on the great lines of road.
From my peculiar position in the country, I had ample opportunities of reflecting on
many things, and nothing struck me more forcibly than the great vacuum that existed
in travelling accommodation between the different orders of society. The incon-
venience felt for the want of a more extended means of intercourse, particularly from
the interior of the country to the different market towns, gave great advantage to a
few at the expense of the many, and above all, occasioned a great loss of time; for
instance, a farmer living twenty or thirty miles from his market town, spent the day
in riding to it, a second day doing his business, and a third day returning. In July
1815, I started a car for the conveyance of passengers from Clonmel to Cahir, which
I subsequently extended to Tipperary and Limerick. At the end of the same year I
started similar cars from Clonmel to Cashel and Thurles, and from Clonmel to Carrick
and Waterford; and I have since extended this establishment so as to include the
most isolated localities, namely, from Longford to Ballina and Bellmullet, which is
201 miles north-west of Dublin; from Athlone to Galway and Clifden, 183 miles
due west of Dublin; from Limerick to Tralee and Cahirciveen, 233 miles south-west
of Dublin; and numbering 110 vehicles, including mail coaches and different-sized
cars, capable of carrying from four to twenty passengers each, and travelling eight to
‘nine miles per hour, at an ayerage fare of one penny farthing per mile for each passenger,
and performing daily 3800 miles, passing through more than 140 stations for the
change of horses; consuming 3000 to 4000 tons of hay, and from 30,000 to 40,000 bar-
rels of oats annually ; all of which are purchased in their respective localities. These
vehicles do not travel on Sundays, unless such portions of them as are in connexion
with the post-office or canals, for the following reasons: first, the Irish being a reli-
gious people will not travel on business on Sundays; and secondly, experience teaches
me that I can work a horse eight miles per day for six days in the week, much better
than I can six miles for seven days. The advantages derived by the country from
this establishment are almost incalculable; for instance, the farmer who formerly
rode and spent three days in making his market, can now do so in one for a few
shillings, thereby saving two clear days, and the expense and use of his horse. The
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93
example of this institution has been generally followed, and cars innumerable leave
the interior for the principal towns in the south of Ireland, which bring parties to and
from markets at an enormous saving of time, and in many instances cheaper than they
could walk it. This establishment has now been in existence twenty-eight years,
travelling with its mails at all hours of the day and night, and never met any inter-
ruption in the performance of its arduous duties. Much surprise has often been ex-
pressed at the high order of men connected with it, and at its popularity; but parties
thus expressing themselves forget to look at Irish society with sufficient grasp. For
my part, I cannot better compare it than to a man emerging into convalescence from
a serious attack of malignant fever, and requiring generous and nutritive diet in place
of medical treatment. Thus I act with my drivers, who are taken from the lowest
grade of the establishment, and who are progressively advanced according to their
respective merits, as opportunity offers, and who know that nothing can deprive them
of this reward, and a superannuated allowance of their full wages in old age, and under
accident, unless their wilful and improper conduct; and as to its popularity, I never
yet attempted to do an act of generosity or common justice, publicly or privately, that
I was not repaid tenfold.
On the Statistics of the Parish of Kilmurry, a rural district in the Barony of
West Muskerry, in the County of Cork, from materials supplied by the
Rev. Wo. KELEHER.
The paper was read by Dr. D. Bullen, and exhibited a striking improvement in the
physical and moral condition of the people, arising chiefly from the temperance move-
ment and the great advance made in education.
Mr. Biggs read a specimen of an inquiry into the sanatory condition of certain
parts of the county of Cork.
Description of the Blackwater River. By Mr. O’FLANAGAN.
On the Infant Industrial Schools of Tuscany.
By Signor Enrico Mayer of Milan.
The first infant schools, or, as they are there called, asylums, established in Tus-
cany, were opened simultaneously in Leghorn and Pisa in 1833. A third was soon
after opened in Florence, and the example then was generally followed. They are
supported wholly by voluntary contributions, and consequently their increase soon
reached its furthest limit. There are now twenty of those infant schools, with 2000
children. The annual expenditure comes to about 1l. sterling a child, house rent,
servants’ wages, teachers’ salary, and soup, being all included. ‘The management
of these schools generally rests with committees of ladies, who take by turn the duty
of inspection ; the remarks written in the inspectors’ book become the subject of de-
liberation at the monthly meetings of the committee. The infant asylums of Tuscany
are intended for the poor, and are entirely gratuitous. They are generally divided
into two classes, having each a separate room, and a separate mistress. The first
class contains children from eighteen months or two years to four or five years old.
The second class contains children from four or five to seven or eight. A play-ground
is attached to every asylum, and the children perform easy gymnastic exercises, which,
however, do not interfere with their own choice of amusements. The introduction of
manual works in the infant asylums in Italy constitutes one of the chief differences
between them and similar institutions in France or England, and experiments are
now making to continue the habits of early industry thus acquired, by procuring some
work in the primary schools. A committee of tradesmen and artisans forms part of
the society for infant schools at Florence, and they are to provide the children with
some easy work, and facilitate afterwards their being employed in the exercise of
different arts and trades. Linear drawing and the rudiments of geometry and me-
_ chanics are taught in the superior classes, but confining the instruction to that which
can be of use in the exercise of every mechanical profession, without taking any one
particularly in view. It is anxiously desired that the manual work of the children
94 REPORT—1843,
should be of a nature to be carried on individually, so that the social element of family
life should continue undisturbed among them, and the infant population should be
preserved as long as possible from the infection of factories. Jnstruction is much less
than education the object of these infant asylums; these are made as much as possi-
ble conducive to moral training, and this by the most simple and gentle means of a
maternal guidance. In the school-room the children pass through a series of exer-
cises calculated to develope their mental and bodily faculties without tiring them.
They are never kept sitting for more than a quarter of an hour ata time, ‘The re-
ligious instruction of the children is directed by the curate of the parish in which the
asylum is established. The mistresses of the asylums keep a journal, in which the
moral history of the institution can be said to be contained, and from which a number
of most interesting facts have been extracted, elucidating the workings of human in-
telligence and human affection, at an age which has not until now been sufficiently
studied by the moral philosopher. Though the Tuscan infant asylums are of so recent
a date, yet their effects are already, and in a remarkable degree, perceptible. The
improvement in the health of the children received in the Tustan asylums is a most
striking fact. The study of this fact on the part of our medical committees has led to
most important observations, not only with respect to the infants themselves, but
extended to their families, and indeed to the whole of the poor population of our
towns, and to the various districts of the towns themselves, The cases of death in our
asylums is between two and three per cent., whilst the general mortality of children
between two and six is in Florence sixteen per cent. The same results have been
observed in Lombardy, where infant asylums are more numerous than in Tuscany.
A thorough reform of every system of education, going through every species of
schools, will be necessary, in order to put them on a par with the high educational
character of our infant schools. The moral results likewise are not confined to the
infants themselves, but are extended to their families. A great proportion of the
children received at the infant asylums in Florence are found to come from the
Foundling Hospital ; indeed out of 600 children, four hundred belong to that class.
They are children whose parents were forced by extreme destitution to abandon them ;
but as soon as our infant asylums were known to exist, parental affection resumed its
rights in the hearts of those hundreds of parents, and a dishonouring brand was wiped
away from the head of those hundreds of children, who found again the joy of their
family, and were restored to their name and their civil condition. In the three years
anterior to the opening of the infant asylums, the average number of children taken
out of the Foundling Hospital was 176; but in 1833, when the asylums were first
established, the number withdrawn was 214, and in 1837 it increased to 404. Few
facts more pregnant than this with important consequences have ever been brought
to light in the moral statisties of any country. The author, in conclusion, pointed out
the superior efficacy of the elevating and kindly treatment of men above the harsh
and repressive. ‘‘ Who,” he observed, * has not seen in the bad direction of public
instruction or in the mismanagement of public charities a necessity for the increase of
coercive institutions, which yet prove insufficient for the repression of crime ; and has
not learned to conclude that there may be a system of instruction which teaches no
virtue, a system of charity which relieves no misery, and a system of punishment
which puts a stop to no crime?”
On the progress of the Willingdon Agricultural School. By Mrs. Girzert.
On the connexion between Statistics and Politieal Economy.
By Professor Lawson.
The Professor began with remarking, that statisties present nothing but a dull and
barren show of figures, until united with the principles which belong to political
economy. The former study bears to the latter the same relation which experimental
philosophy bears to mathematics. Political economy, though a mixed science, yet
has its abstract part, and the application of the principles thence derived to facts leads
us on to new truths. Statistics afford at once the materials and the test of political
economy. The Professor then adduced an example of the way in which statisties
frequently correct political economy, In Edinburgh, the proportion of marriages to
Se
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95
the whole population is 1 in 186, In Leith, however, where the population is of
much humbler grade, the proportion is 1 in 110. Again, in Perth, there is 1 marriage
to 159 inhabitants; while in Dundee, which is a much poorer place, there is 1 in 111
inhabitants, Thus statistics prove that poverty is not a cheek on marriage, though
political economists have always assumed that it is. We find another example in the
doctrine of profits and wages, which Mr, Ricardo, followed by other political econo-
mists, held to be autagonistic, the increase of wages diminishing profits, and vice
vers; whereas Mr, Senior, on looking to facts, found that wages and profits usually
rise and fall together. Mr. Ricardo’s error, in this instance, is traceable to ambiguity
of expression. While statistics afford materials and a test to political economy, the
Jatter points out the proper object of statistical inquiries, and draws conclusions from
their results, SSS
Contributions to Academical Statistics, Oxford. By Professor PowE.t.
The following details refer solely to the first examination, called ‘ Responsions,’
which takes place at the end of the first year of academical residence, and the passing
of which is an indispensable preliminary for becoming afterwards a candidate for a
degree, that is, in general, for continuing in the University. ‘The column of matricu-
lations is taken from the author’s communications in the Reports of the British Asso-
ciation for 1889 and 1842. The number of candidates being in general greater than
that of the matriculations, arises from the circumstance of many offering themselves a
second, or even a third time, after failure or withdrawal on a previous occasion. The
mean results may show generally the proportion of those who either failing or with-
drawing at this examination, do not go through more than the first portion of their
academical course. But no exact proportion can be assigned, owing to the circumstance
just mentioned.
ws didates .
Year. gp te i for Passed. Failed. P aehia
1832 377 415 308 51 56
1833 384 420 325 42 53
1834 360 379 307 29 43
1835 369 395 292 45 58
1836 369 420 311 56 53
18387 421 431 295 73 63
1838 393 489 336 107 46
1889 404 483 375 70 38
1840 896 408 326 53 29
1841 - 441 412 338 40 34
Mean...| 391 425 321 57 | 47
On a natural Relation between the Season of Death and the Anniversary of
the Season of Birth, which varies with each Month of Birth; and on a
similarily varying tendency ta Death in the Anniversary of the Natal Month.
By Josern Peer, Catiow.
The fundamental data of this communication are the months of birth and death
respectively of 4743 individuals, collected indiscriminately, from general and parti-
eular biography, and other authentic sources, with a range of time from the sixteenth
to the nineteenth century inclusive; the average duration of life being 51 years
8 months 18 days.
1. The monthly births and the monthly deaths respectively, throughout the year,
differ: inconsiderably in comparison with the quota furnished severally by the former
to the latter. Thus, the greatest difference between the monthly births is only 2°57
per cent., and the greatest differenee between the monthly deaths is only 2: per cent. ;
the greatest number of births being in February, and the least in July; the latter
month also furnishing the smallest number of deaths, and April the largest. On the
other hand, the greatest difference between the quota furnished severally by the
96 REPORT—1843.
monthly births to the monthly deaths is 7-6 per cent., and the least difference 29 per
cent. of the respective number of births ; thus, while 12:4 of the January-born die in
April, only 4°8 per cent. die in June; and again, while this small proportion of the
January births is furnished to the mortality of June, this month is fatal to 12-3 per
cent. of the June births.
2. Of the grand total of births throughout the year, 467, that is, 71°75, or 18°15 per
cent., above jth, or the monthly average, die in the anniversary of the natal month,
and 4-2 per cent. above the average in the anniversary of the post-natal month; while,
on the other hand, the mortality in the two months which immediately precede the
anniversary of the natal-month is 5-1 per cent. below the average.
3. The aggregate mortality of all births in the natal quarter, that is, in the three
months of which the natal anniversary is the mean, is 1270; that is, 84:25, or 7:1
per cent. above 4th, or the quarterly average ; the only exception being for July
births; the mortality of which in this quarter is 4- per cent. deficient.
4. The mortality in the anniversary of the natal month varies as follows, for each
month of birth:—January, 35:17 per cent.+ ; February, 86+; March, 24-4 + ;
April, 20°16 +; May, 31:+ ; June, 52°+; July, 20°+ ; August, 19°6 + ; September,
12°3— ; October, 12'+ ; November, 2°39 — ; December, 10°9+.
5. The difference of mortality in the same month is very apparent on comparing
its respective amounts when the month is successively one of the months of the natal
quarter. ‘Thus, e.g. the mortality of May is 31- per cent. + for May births, while it
is 4:1 per cent. — for June births, and 20: per cent.— for April births. Again, the
mortality of June is 52: per cent.+ for June births, while it is 34°8 per cent. — for
July births, and 26-8 per cent. — for May births. The mortality of July is variously
below the average for all but July births, but the least deficient for August births.
On the Effect of Light as a part of Vital Statistics. By R. Downey.
On the Heat and Warmth of Cottages. By R. Dowvden.
Abstract of the Report of the French Minister of Public Instruction on the
Higher Schools of France. By J. Heywoon, F.R.S.
On the Statistics of Lunacy, with special relation to the Asylum in Cork.
By Dr. Osporne.
On the present Infecting and Demoralizing State of the Lodging-houses for
the travelling poor in the towns and villages of England. By the late W.
LEATHAM.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
On the Application of our Knowledge of the Laws of Sound to the Construe-
tion of Buildings. By Mr. Scorr Russet.
Tue object of this paper was twofold—first, to apply our knowledge of the known
laws of sound to the phenomena of speaking and hearing in a given building ; and
secondly, to develope certain Jaws of sound recently discovered, and not generally
known; and to show their application to the same practical purposes. Part I. of
the paper contained the application of the inown laws of sound to the construction
of buildings. The author prefaced this part of the paper by describing a form of
building which had been found to be perfectly adapted to the purpose of seeing and
hearing with distinctness and comfort. This arrangement of buildings had been
described by him in a paper communicated to the Royal Society of Arts of Scotland
some years ago, but had not been actually constructed on a large scale until lately,
when a young architect, Mr. Cousins, of Edinburgh, having been employed to con-
struct some large buildings, and alighting on this paper, adopted its principles.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97
Buildings were now erected on this principle, and contained from fifteen hundred to
three thousand people, whom they accommodated without difficulty, and with per-
fect comfort both to speaker and hearer. He had little doubt, from experiments he
had recently made, that so many as ten thousand people might be so arranged as to
hear with ease and comfort a good speaker. Mr. Scott Russell’s principle of con-
struction is to place the speaker in the focus of a curve, which he calls the curve of
equal hearing, or the isacoustic curve; and to place the seats of the auditors in such
a fender that their heads shall all be arranged in this curve.
or -—
Let A BC D represent the vertical section of a building for public speaking, S the
height of the speaker on his platform, D C the floor of the building : then, for the pur-
_ pose that all the auditors should hear and see equally well, they should be placed on
_ the line S R B of the acoustic curve. This curve is constructed in the following
_ manner: D Cis first divided into equal parts, to represent the usual breadth of a
_ sitting, and vertical lines are drawn through these points. R being the place of the
_ auditor 1 ; the place of auditor 2 behind him is assigned thus—join S R, and produce
f it to a—from a upwards set off a 2 = 9 inches, and 2 is the proper height of the
_ mext spectator. Then join S 2, produce it to 4, and set off 6 3 = 9 inches, and 3 is
the place of the third spectator; and so on for the place of every spectator. Such
was the vertical section of the building. The horizontal section was either circular
or polygonal, having the speaker at the centre. This form had been found perfectly
successful in affording the highest degree of comfort both to hearer and speaker ;
therefore he submitted it with confidence to the Section, as a practical and esta=
blished principle, more than as a mere theoretical speculation.
He next entered into an analysis of the nature and causes of the evils which are
experienced in public buildings of a large size and of the usual forms—in so far as
these may be deduced from the received laws of sound. These he classed as fol-
‘lows. First, evils arising from reflexion of sounds. Second, evils arising from
spontaneous oscillation, and the independent key-note of the building. In con-
sidering this branch of the subject, an explanation was attempted of the fact, that
buildings have a key-note and pitch ; and a rule for finding that pitch, practically and
theoretically, was adduced. Third, evils arising from interferences of sound, owing
to the disproportions and forms of buildings. These evils were all to be remedied
by the adoption of the form given in the paper; and, on that construction, he had
satisfied himself, that five, ten, or even twelve thousand people might be so arranged
as to hear a single voice easily and comfortably. The second part of the paper
examined certain phenomena in sound, with which we had not formerly been
acquainted. Our knowledge of the laws of sound rested hitherto on an hypothesis,
that the phenomena of sound in the air were analogous to the phenomena of water,
when disturbed by dropping a stone on the surface of a smooth lake. In this case it
__ is well known that the water propagates waves round the point of disturbance in all
; directions, and that these diffuse themselves in concentric rings over the whole sur-
saat ns TNC AEE nL RMP it OO
_ face. In like manner it was taken for granted, that the sound-waves, produced by a
_ sonorous body, are ofasimilar nature, and the laws of sound had been deduced from
_ this hypothesis. These laws were, however, imperfect and erroneous. Scund did
not resemble these waves ; therefore analogies deduced from such waves were erro-
_ neous. These waves of water are denominated by Mr. Russell, waves of the second
1843. H
98 REPORT—1843.
order. But there is another kind of wave, the wave of the first order, to which the
sound-wave bears a remarkable analogy. This wave had been examined in another
place (in Section A.), and the properties of this erder of wave enable us to
solve many difficulties in the phenomena of sound. The common water-waves of
the surface of a smooth lake had this property, that they were transmitted with
various velocities, according to the circumstances producing the wave; but this was
not so in the case of the sound-wave, the French Academicians having successfully
established, that the velocities of sounds of different intensity and pitch are all trans-
mitted in a fluid in a given condition, with precisely equal velocities ; now the chief
peculiarity of the sound-wave is this constant of velocity, independent of the con-
ditions of the impelling cause. Another circumstance, serving to identify the sound-
wave with the wave of the first order, is the similar characters of the formule ex-
pressing this velocity, whereas the formula expressing the velocity of common
water-waves is of a form essentially different. It has further been observed, that
there exist in the sound-wave, and in the wave of the first order, in water, the same
polarity, the same law of diffusion, the same phenomenon of non-reflexion, at certain
angles, and the phenomenon of lateral accumulation. From these data the author
went on to give new explanations of the theory of whispering galleries, echoes, the
conveyance of sound to great distances across lakes, ice, and other smooth surfaces.
He applied the principles thus adduced to the explanation of many evils of certain
forms of building not hitherto understood, and proceeded to develope the rules
and methods to be adopted for the remedies of those evils.
On the Construction of Luntley’s Shadowless Gas-burners, and the shape of
Glass Chimneys for Lamps. By Henry Dircks.
The object of the burner was to bring the gas issuing from the small orifices into
direct contact with atmospheric air at the ordinary temperature. Mr. Dircks con-
tended that the heating of the air previously to its combustion diminishes the bright-
ness of the flame; because, while each volume of carburetted hydrogen gas requires
ten volumes of atmospheric air for its perfect combustion, the expansion of the air
by heat necessarily reduces the weight of oxygen contained in the same volume of
air; and therefore, unless some means be adopted of increasing the supply of air, the
oxygen would be deficient. Another alleged advantage of the burner arises from
the small quantity of metal employed in its construction, and which greatly assists
the heating of the gas preparatory to its flowing through the orifices. The pecu-
liarity in the form of the glass chimney consists in having the upper end enlarged,
The effect of this enlargement, Mr. Dircks said, was to open the top of the flame, to
render its figure more cylindrical and increase its brightness.
On the Prevention of Smoke from Engine Boilers and other Furnaces.
By Henry Dircks.
Mr. Dircks gave a summary description of the Argand furnace invented by Mr. C, —
W. Williams, of which he said no less than 200 bad been put up for land engine fur- t
naces, and that the plan was adopted on board twenty-three steamers. By a refer-
ence to large diagrams he distinguished the difference between the mode of admitting —
the air to these furnaces compared with any method previously practised ; he stated
that in general inventors had endeavoured to burn as large a quantity of fuel with as
little air as possible, but that Mr. Williams had clearly shown the importance of ad-
mitting air to the impure gas issuing from the fuel in the furnace; and not only so,
but likewise that that air so required must be admitted in the extremely minute form
of small streams or jets, the mixture of the air and gas being then made with greater
effect and dispatch. It was now, he said, important to show that this plan was at- —
tended with considerable economy, as the best means to ensure its adoption. This,
in the first place, depended on scientific evidence obtained by a knowledge of the
chemistry of combustion ; in the second, it was proved by the evidence of the pyro-
meter of Mr. H. Houldsworth of Manchester, consisting of an iron rod 30 or 40
feet long passing through the furnace flue, and which, as it elongated by heat, and
contracted by lowering the temperature, showed distinctly, by a lever pointing to a
-
friction.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99
graduated scale, any increment of heat obtained by the combustion of the gas. This
increase of temperature, he stated, was found in practice to attend the admission of
the jets of air, and to decrease by shutting off all access of air to the diffusion appa-
ratus: there is, therefore, in this arrangement one supply of air for the gas by the
perforated air distributions, and another for the fuel on the grate by the ordinary
mode of an open ash-pit. Mr. Dircks explained a drawing of an ingenious pyrome-
ter 104 feet long, extending through the entire length of a chimney at the works of
Messrs. Ellis and Noton, Engineers, Manchester, who had become so familiar with
this instrument, being self-registering, that they could distinguish all the alternations
of work and stoppages occurring at the furnace.
Mr. Dircks added some statements as to the advantage and practicability of in-
creasing the evaporative power of the boiler itself, and a table founded on experi-
ments of the relative calorific and commercial value of different sorts of coal and
turf variously prepared for the furnace.
| Description of a Furnace for Economizing Fuel and Preventing Smoke.
By Joun CHANTER.
The author exhibited drawings of the arrangements he employed for these pure
poses. It differs from Mr. Williams’s in the two essential particulars of heating the
air before it is admitted to the fire, and of giving a reciprocating motion to the fire-
bars, for the purpose of freeing them from clinkers and ashes. The air is admitted
into an air-chamber to be heated, and a “ deflective arch,” at the bottom of the
boiler, turns the generated gases on to the hot fuel, supplied with its requisite por-
tion of oxygen through the clear fire-bars-
Mr, J. Juckes exhibited the model of his Furnace for Burning Smoke, with fire-
bars consisting of endless chains passing over rollers, which was explained at the last
Manchester meeting.
On the Application of Water as a Moving Power. By Mr. Ryan.
In principle, the machine described resembled Barker’s mill.
On a New Oil for Lubricating Machinery. By J. 1. Hawk1ns.
Mr. Hawkins described a practice which has lately been adopted in some parts
of the United States, of procuring oil and spermaceti from pigs. The pigs are driven
into the woods to feed, and after some months they are brought back and fattened
with Indian corn. The animals are then killed and boiled altogether, for the pur-
pose of extracting all the lard, which is then converted into stearine and elain. ‘The
oil thus procured is of a remarkably fine quality, and well adapted for lubricating
machinery.
Mr. Hawkins read a paper on the friction of water against water, as exemplified
in the well-known experiment of emptying a vessel full of water by sending a jet of
the fluid through it. This friction of the particles of fluid against each other caused
the principal obstruction toe the motion of ships through the water; and he con-
ceived that it would be advantageous to grease the bottoms of ships to diminish the
On the Formation of Concrete. By J.1. HAWKINS.
In this communication the author showed the importance of having the stones of
the proper sizes, so that the smaller ones should as nearly as possible fill up the in-
terstices of the larger, Where the sizes were properly adjusted, he found that one
proportion of lime to twenty of shingle formed a stronger concrete than when larger
proportions of lime were used. Some engineers are in the habit of using one of lime
to six of shingle, and the proportions generally used are as one to eight, A spe-
cimen of concrete made in the proportions he recommended, and with shingle of
proper sizes, was found after a short time to be stronger than an old Roman wall.
HZ
100 REPORT—1843.
Qn the Marine Propeller invented about the year 1825 by Mr. Jacob Perkins.
By Joun Isaac Hawkins, C.E.
‘i his propeller is a species of screw, but distinguished from that called the Archi-
medean Screw by revolving in a large circumference, and therefore requiring only
a few revolutions per minute to effect a due speed of the vessel, and consequently a
moderate number of strokes per minute of the steam-engine; distinguished also by
about a fourth part only of the diameter descending into the water.
It may be described as two sets of revolving oars or scullers, entering the water
obliquely at the same time on opposite sides of the vessel, passing by each other
at the middle, and receding from each other after passing the middle of the vessel,
until they leave the water at the sides opposite to their respective entrances. The
object of this opposite entrance and exit of the oars is to leave the rudder free from
bias to either side, and thus to render the vessel easy to be steered. These con-
trary motions are effected by fixing a set of four or six oars on the end of a solid axle,
upon which another set of four or six oars, affixed to a hollow axle, revolves in a con-
trary direction. Or the propeller may be said to be like two sets of windmill vanes,
the solid axle of one revolving within the hollow axle of the other, the two sets of
‘vanes moving in contrary directions; the axis of rotation lying parallel to and over
the keel, at about half the radius above the water line, so that only the extreme half
of the radius is submersed, the face of the vane having a variable obliquity, calculated
to give the same degree of propulsive effect from every part, according to its distance
from the centre of motion. The centre of rotation being out of the water offers no
obstruction, like the middle part of the Archimedean screw propeller, which, being
submersed, becomes a hindrance, the beneficial effect being only obtainable from the
parts of the screw at a distance from the centre.
Mr. Hawkins exhibited and explained a drawing of a propeller having two sets
of six oars each, supposed to extend across the stern of a vessel thirty feet in width,
the ends of the oars descending seven feet and a half into the water, constituting a
propulsive effect proportionate to the velocity of the oars, combined with the obli-
quity of their forces. The tips of the oars revolving in a circle of thirty feet dia-
meter, the number of revolutions per minute will be but small compared with the
Archimedean screw propeller; the necessary speed will therefore be easily obtained
by ordinary gearing from a moderate number of strokes per minute of the engine.
Soon after the date of the patent this propeller was placed to work over the stern
of a canal boat, and driven by a very defective steam-engine. The circumference of
the circle described by the tips of the oars was about 25 feet. The propulsive force
was most strikingly effective, and was continued for a few miles, when a part of the
steam-engine broke and terminated the experiment. It was witnessed, Mr. Hawkins
said, to the best of his recollection, only by Mr. Perkins, by himself, by the engine-
driver and by the stoker.
He therefore feels it his duty to make an effort to rescue from oblivion this, in
his opinion, the best of all marine propellers, which has laid dormant now for
eighteen years. The patent expired four years ago.
Mr. Booth described an apparatus for raising miners and minerals from the deep
vertical shafts of mines. It consists of a revolving inclined plane, or endless screw-
shaft. The threads of the screw are made to act on the peripheries of small wheels
extending from the carriage in which the miners, &c. are placed. A rotatory motion
is communicated to the shaft, and the carriage is raised or lowered according to the
direction in which the screw is turned.
Mr. J. Taylor described an immense steam-engine, which is now constructing in
Cornwall, for the purpose of draining the lake of Haarlem. The cylinder of this
*“ mammoth” engine is twelve feet in diameter, with a twelve-feet stroke. Round
this immense cylinder are arranged eleven pumps, each of them of sixty-three inches
diameter, with a nine-feet stroke. The valve at the bottom of the cylinder is on the
butterfly construction, which is not generally conceived to be well adapted for large
engines,
on at sl
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 101
Mr. J. Taylor described a simple Steam-engine Indicator, which had been invented
by Mr. A. Rous, who was formerly a working engineer in Cornwall. It consists of
a half-second pendulum, to which a pencil is fixed and pointed against a card. The
card is attached to the beam of the engine, and as it moves perpendicularly the pen-
cil on the pendulum marks on it waving lines, which are wide apart when the piston
moves quickly, and closer together as the velocity of the piston decreases. The
distances between the lines indicate the spaces moved through by the piston in half
a second in different parts of the stroke.
Mr. Perry mentioned that he had received a letter from Dublin, announcing the
complete success attending the opening of the Atmospheric Railway on the branch
of the Kingstown and Dublin line. The length of the atmospheric rail was one mile
and three quarters ; and the average gradient 1 in 100. After forty strokes of the
stationary engine the vacuum gauge stood at 17 inches; after 100 strokes it was at
2135; and it was ultimately raised to 22. The carriages were filled with passengers,
and they ascended the line at a speed of twenty-eight miles an hour. When the
machinery had got into proper working order, it was expected that a speed of at
least fifty miles an hour would be attained.
Mr. Bevan exhibited a model of a complicated kind of Paddle Wheel, intended to
be so contrived that the floats should enter the water and come out of it perpendi-
cularly. It was proposed to effect this by having the floats moveable and weighted,
so as to keep them perpendicular by their own gravity.
A communication from Mr. L. Cooke, of Parsons-town, describing a Clock Move-
ment of his invention, and a new mode of suspending the pendulum, was read by
Mr. Taylor. In this contrivance the pendulum is detached from all parts of the
clock movement, and is in contact only at the suspending needle points. The pen-
dulum is made to vibrate in half-seconds, by which means the variations owing to
expansion and contraction are greatly diminished, and that source of error is further
corrected by a compensating mechanical pendulum.
Sir T. Deane explained the method adopted by his brother, Mr. A. Deane, to
raise the Innisfaile steam-vessel, of 500 tons, which was sunk by striking against an
anchor in the Cork river a few years ago. The ordinary methods of raising sunken
ships having proved ineffectual, a coffer-dam. was made round the vessel in the
middle of the river, and pumped dry by means of eight or nine chain-pumps. The
leak was ascertained by digging under the ship, and a cow-hide was nailed over it
to keep it water-tight. The coffer-dam was removed as quickly as possible, when
the Jnnisfaile again floated by her own buoyancy, and the steam having been got up,
she was taken to Passage to undergo the necessary repairs. The whole cost was
400/., and the work was done in the course of four tides.
Mr. J. E. Purser exhibited Life-Preservers of his invention, which are appli-
cable in cases of fire and of shipwreck.—To show the value of this first invention, he
descended from an upper window of the court house; and he tested the efficacy of
the water-escape cork-jacket at Cove during the excursion on Thursday.
Mr. G. White communicated an account of Mr, Starkey’s system of Filtration by
sponge compressed 4, to ; of its natural bulk.
The Rey. Mr. Scoresby described an apparatus for simplifying the illustration of
trigonometrical operations, especially with reference to the purposes of education.
It is called by the inventor a trigonometrical indicator.
On a Method of Ascertaining inaccessible Distances at Sea or Land.
By Mr. P. Leany.
On this plan two small telescopes are fixed at the greatest distance the vessel will
admit of, and so as to form some multiple of ten feet, This distance forms the base
line on which the calculations are to be made.
102 ‘ REPORT—1843.
Description of a Process for preventing the deleterious effects of Dry
Grinding. By J. P. GRoLyer.
Mr. H. Henessy read a paper on a very simple apparatus for the purpose of deter-
mining the distance of objects. A moveable base line carries on it a small arc, by
which the approximate determination of distances of 500 feet is easily effected.
Omitted in the Report for 1842.
On the Buoyant Floatwater. By Capt. A. W. Suricu. Read at Man-
chester in 1842.
Captain Sleigh stated the basis on which the buoyant sea-barrier which he has de-
vised depends for its successful operation, is the fact that the agitation and drift of the
sea is entirely superficial, and that the reaction, usually denominated the ground
swell, caused by a current passing over an uneven bottom, is so extremely limited
in its uppermost effect, that it cannot be detected when a hand lead is lowered within
three feet of an irregular ground over which a tide passes rapidly (say five knots
an hour).
On the Barometric Compensation of the Pendulum. By Dr. Roxinson. ©
(Section A.)*
At the Manchester Meeting of the Association Professor Bessel made a communi-
cation on the improvement of the astronomical clock, which, with other valuable mat-
ter, contained a proposal to compensate for the changes of rate produced by the vary-
ing density of the atmosphere. ‘This appears in the Report of the Sectional Proceed-
ings, and also at much greater length in No. 465 of the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten.’
At the time Professor Stevelly remarked, that I had not merely proposed but applied
this compensation twelve years ago +; and I should not have reverted to it, but that I
think my method possesses certain advantages over that proposed by the illustrious
astronomer of Kiénigsberg, which entitle it to the preference in practice. It was long
believed to be demonstrated that the rate of a pendulum was influenced by the air’s
density only as far as it lessened the are of vibration and diminished its gravity by
buoyancy. The researches of Kater on the length of the second pendulum are all
vitiated by this mistake, which was discovered by Bessel during a similar investigation,
in which he found, by using balls of different specific gravities, that the received
buoyancy correction is too small. As early as 1825, and without any knowledge of
what Bessel was doing, I had ascertained the same fact by comparing the rates of my
transit clock with the barometric indications; and Colonel Sabine gave the final proof
of it by swinging the pendulum in a vacuum apparatus in the year 1829, The amount
of it is far from inconsiderable; even with the mercurial pendulum of my transit
clock, which weighs 21 pounds, and presents a very small surface, it is 0°36 for an
inch change of the barometer. Now the remedy for this is obvious. If we attach a
barometer to the pendulum, its fall transfers a cylinder of mercury from a point near
the axis of motion to a greater distance from it; the time of vibration may thus be
made to increase by the same amount that it decreases in consequence of the dimi-
nished density of the air. In the expression of this increase, there are two disposable
constants, the diameter of the tube and the distance of an extremity of the barometric
column from the suspension of the pendulum. Two conditions may therefore be ful-
filled. Bessel assumes as one, that the lower surface of the mercury shall be at the
centre of oscillation ; an arrangement which does not seem to possess any peculiar ad-
vantage, as he makes the compensation by giving an appropriate diameter to the tube.
This however does not admit of adjustment, while the method adopted by me of shift-
ing the barometric column makes it perfectly easy, and permits me to apply the other
constant to correct the variation of arc produced by a change of resistance. It is ob-
* This paper as given on p.17 is incomplete.
+ Astronomical Memoirs, vol. v. Dependence of Clock’s rate on Barometer,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103
vious that if the moment of inertia of the pendulum increase as the air’s resistance
lessens, the are of vibration may be made permanent; and that this is the change pro-
duced by the descent of the mercury in the compensating tube. It is not easy in the
ordinary work of an observatory, to determine the precise relation between the are and
the condensity ; but by placing the clock zm vacuo, as Bessel proposes (and as Sir James
South has actually done for several years past), the effect of resistance can be deter-
mined exactly, and the diameter of the tube selected, which will nearly correct it.
This is not mere speculation, for I have verified it by trial. The diameter which I
selected for my tubes (0:1 inch) is not far from the truth. In the autumn of last
year a fall of 1-6 inch produced no appreciable change of arc. The temperature, how-
ever, was then nearly stationary; but notwithstanding its changes during the interval
from that time till my leaving Armagh, the arc has been between 1° 36! and 1° 39!,
Before the tubes were applied, the limits for the same period were 1° 42! and 1° 51’.
The changes in Bessel’s own clock, though made by Kessel, a first-rate artist, were
still greater, being from 1° 25! to 1° 39’, an excess owing in part probably to the great
severity of the German winter. From what I have seen of the vacuum apparatus
used by Sabine or South, I cannot refrain from expressing a wish that the experiment
were tried of mounting a transit clock permanently in vacuo: such a clock would have
many advantages, besides its exemption from changes of barometric pressure.
[ 105 ]
INDEX I.
TO
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
OBJECTS and rules of the Association, v.
Officers and council, vii.
Places of meeting and officers from com-
mencement, viii.
Table of council from commencement, ix.
Officers of sectional committees and corre-
sponding members, xi.
Treasurer’s account, xii.
Reports, researches and desiderata of science
published by the Association, xiv.
Recommendations adopted by the general
committee at the Cork Meeting, xx.
Recommendations for reports and researches
not involving grants of money, xx.
Recommendations of special researches in
science involving grants of money, xxi.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated to
scientific objects at the Cork Meeting, xxix.
General statement of sums which have been
paid on account of grants for scientific
purposes, Xxv.
Extracts from resolutions of the general com-
mittee, xxviii.
Address by the Earl of Rosse, xxix.
Report of the council to the general com-
mittee on the publication of catalogues of
stars, xxxiv.
Report of the committee, consisting of Prof.
Wheatstone, Mr. Hutton, and the general
secretaries and treasurer, appointed by the
council to superintend the establishment
of meteorological observations at the Kew
Observatory, xxxix.
Report on the electro-magnetic meteorolo-
gical register, by Prof. Wheatstone, xl.
Acalepha, on Irish, 281.
igean Sea, Mollusca and Radiata of the, 130.
Agassiz (M.), synoptical table of British fossil
fishes, arranged in the order of the geolo-
gical formations, 194.
Air, action of, on cast iron, wrought iron
and steel, 1.
Amorphozoa, on Irish, 286.
Animals, acephalous, scarcity of, in the Agean
Sea, 146.
——,, marine, distribution of, in the Mgean
Sea, 152.
Annelida, on Irish, 271.
Anoplotherium, on the remaius of, in Great
Britain, 225,
Antarctic expedition, on the, 54.
Aplysia, new species of, 187.
Asphyxia, 295.
Astarte, new species of, 192.
Baily (F.) on revising the nomenclature of
the stars, 292.
Balloons, experiments on captive, 128.
Barometer, mean altitudes of the, in the
United States during 1836, 1837, and part
of 1838, 88.
Binney (E. W.) on the excavation made at
the junction of the lower new red sand-
stone with the coal measures at Collyhurst,
near Manchester, 241.
Blake (J.) on the physiological action of
medicines, 115.
Bos, on the remains of, in Great Britain, 232.
Buckland (William) on registering the shocks
of earthquakes, 120.
Bulla, new species of, 187.
Bullzea, new species of, 187.
Brewster (Sir D.) on the meteorological
observations at Inverness, 292.
on the meteorological hourly observa-
tions at Unst, 293.
—— on the action of different bodies on the
spectrum, 294.
Capra, on the remains of, in Great Britain,
236.
Carboniferous system, British fossil fishes of
the, 195.
Cerithium, new species of, 190.
Cervus, on the remains of, in Great Britain,
236.
Chiton, new species of, 188.
Cheeropotamus, on the remains of the genus,
in Great Britain, 226.
Cirrhipeda, on Irish, 265.
Coal measures at Collyhurst, on the excava-
tion made at the junction of the lower
new red sandstone with the, 241.
Corals, scarcity of, in the Aigean Sea, 152.
Cretaceous system, British fossil fishes of
the, 203.
Crustacea, on Irish, 266.
Daubeny (Prof.) on the growth and vitality:
of seeds, 105.
106
Dentalium, new species of, 188.
Devonian system, British fossil fishes of the,
194.
Devonport, results of the discussion of the
meteorological observations made at, 291.
Dichobunes, on the remains of the genus, in
Great Britain, 225.
Dimyaria, 260.
Doris, new species of, 186.
Earthquakes, on registering shocks of, 120.
, register for taking shocks of, 126.
Echinodermata, on Irish, 279.
Elephas, on the remains of the genus, in
Great Britain, 208.
Ely (the very Rev. the Dean of) on simulta~
neous magnetical and meteorological obser-
vations, 54.
Entozoa, on Irish, 275.
Equus, on the remains of the genus, in Great
Britain, 230.
Eulima, new species of, 188.
Fairbairn (W.) on the consumption of fuel
and prevention of smoke, 294.
— on the internal changes and constitu-
tion of metals, 294.
Fauna of Ireland, on the, 245.
Fishes, synoptical table of British fossil, 194.
Foraminifera, on Irish, 274.
Forbes (Edward) on the Mollusca and Radiata
of the Aigean Sea, and on their distribution,
considered as bearing on geology, 130; Ap-
pendix, No. I., 180; No. IL, 186 ; No. IIL.,
193. }
Frith of Forth, on the tides of the, 110.
Fuel, on the consumption of, 294.
Fusus, new species of, 190.
Geology, on the Mollusca and Radiata of the
/igean Sea, considered as bearing on, 130.
Goniodoris, new species of, 186.
Great Britain, on earthquakes in, 120.
Harris (W. Snow) on the results of the dis-
cussion of the meteorological observations
made at Plymouth and Devonport at the
request of the Association, 291.
Henslow (Prof.) on the growth and vitality
of seeds, 105.
Herschel (Sir John) on simultaneous magne-
tical and meteorological observations, 54.
on the reduction of meteorological ob-
servations, 60.
— on revising the nomenclature of the
stars, 292.
Hippopotamus, on the remains of the genus,
in Great Britain, 223.
Human race, on the varieties of the, 293.
Hyracotherium, on the remains of the genus,
in Great Britain, 226.
Icarus, new species of, 187.
Invertebrata of the Aigean Sea, 130.
- of Ireland, 244.
Ireland, on the fauna of, 245,
INDEX I.
Tron, action of air and water on, 1, 3.
——,, analyses of cast, 4.
——, maximum and minimum corrosion of, 4.
——,, corrosion of wrought, 9.
Kane (Prof.) on the chemical history of co-
louring matters, 292.
Kellia, new species of, 192.
Ladas, new species of, 186.
Ligula, new species of, 191.
Lima, new species of, 192.
Lindley (Prof.) on the growth and vitality of
seeds, 105.
Lloyd (Dr.) on simultaneous magnetical and
meteorological observations, 54.
Lophiodon, on the remains of the genus, in
Great Britain, 224.
Lottia, new species of, 188.
Magnetism, terrestrial, publication of obser-
vations and memoirs relating to, 56.
Mallet (Robert), third report upon the action
of air and water, whether fresh or salt,
clear or foul, and of various temperatures,
upon cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, 1.
Mammalia, British fossil, 208.
Mammoth, indications of the physical forces
which operated on the unstratified . drift
containing bones and teeth of the, 219.
Mastodon, remains of species of this genus
rare in Great Britain, 210.
Medicines, physiological action of, 115.
Meduse, scarcity of, in the Algean Sea, 152.
Melibcea, new species of, 186.
Metals, on the internal changes in the con-
stitution of, 294.
Meteorological observations, reduction of, 60.
——, results of the discussion of the, made
at Plymouth and Devonport, 291.
—— at Inverness, 292.
——, hourly, at Unst, on the, 293.
Meteorology, publication of observations and
memoirs relating to, 56.
Milne (David) on registering the shocks of
earthquakes, 120.
Mitra, new species of, 191.
Mollusca of the Aigean Sea, 131,
——, testaceous, of the Ajgean Sea, 158.
, greatest depths at which they are found
alive in the Agean Sea, 168.
, new species of, from the Aigean Sea,
186.
——, brief diagnoses of new species of, 186.
— of Ireland, 247.
Monomyaria, 260.
Moseley (H.) on steam-engines, 104.
Murex, new species of, 190.
Nassa, new species of, 190.
Nomenclature, zoological, 119.
Nucula, new species of, 192.
Observatories, on naval, magnetical and me-
teorological, 59.
——, on British and foreign, 56.
INDEX I.
Observatories, meteorological, results of ex-
periments made in the European group of,
61.
——,, Asiatic, 81.
——,, South African, 83.
——,, American, 84.
——,, North American, 85.
—,, synopsis of the stations and terms,
101.
Oolitic system, British fossil fishes of the,
198.
Owen (Richard) on British fossil Mammalia,
208.
Palzotherium, on the remains of the genus,
in Great Britain, 225.
Parthenia, new species of, 188.
Peach (C. W.) on the habits of the marine
Testacea, 129.
Pecten, new species of, 192.
Peracle, new species of, 186.
Permian system, British fossil fishes of the,
198.
Pleurobranchus, new species of, 187.
Pleurotoma, new species of, 190.
Plymouth, results of the discussion of the
meteorological observations made at, 291.
Pole (William) on steam-engines, 104,
Provisional reports and notices, 291.
Radiata of the Hgean Sea, on the, 130, 146.
Railroad section committee, report of, 295.
Rhinoceros, on the remains of the genus, in
Great Britain, 220. :
Rissoa, new species of, 189.
_. Robinson (T. R.) on conducting experiments
_ with captive balloons, 128.
Ruminantia, on the remains of, in Great
Britain, 232.
Russell (J. 8.) on the tides of the Frith of
Forth and the east coast of Scotland, 110.
— on the form of ships, 112.
Sabine (Colonel) on simultaneous magnetical
and meteorological observations, 54.
— on the translation and publication of
' foreign scientific memoirs, 129.
Sandstone, lower new red, on the excavation
made at the junction of the, with the coal
measures at Collyhurst, 241.
Scalaria, new species of, 189.
Scientific Memoirs, foreign, on the transla-
_ tion and publication of, 129.
Scotland, on the tides of the east coast of,
a 110.
_ Seeds, growth and vitality of, 105.
——, ——, result of the experiments made
on the, 106.
Sharpey (Dr.) on Asphyxia, 295.
Shells, He he of, in various depths of
the Aigean Sea, 171.
_ Ships, iron, durability of, 14.
- ——, form of, 112.
107
Silurian system, British fossil fishes of the,
194,
Smoke, on the prevention of, 294.
Spectrum, action of different bodies on the,
294,
Sponges, abundance of, in the Agean Sea,
152.
— of Ireland, on the, 286.
Stars, on revising the nomenclature of the,
292.
Steam-enginés, experiments on, 104.
Steel, action of air and water on, 1, 9.
, corrosion of, 9.
Strata, section of, at Collyhurst, 241.
along the valley of the Irk, 242.
Strickland (H. E.) on the growth and vitality
of seeds, 105.
—— on zoological nomenclature, 119.
Surveys, magnetic, 59.
Sus, on the remains of the genus, in Great
Britain, 228.
Terebratula, new species of, 193.
Tertiary system, British fossil fishes of the,
206.
Testacea, habits of the marine, 129.
— of the Agean Sea, 156.
Thompson (William) on the fauna of Ireland :
Div. Invertebrata, 245.
Thracia, new species of, 191.
Tides of the Frith of Forth, on the, 110.
Tornatella, new species of, 191.
Triasic system, British fossil fishes of the,
199.
Trinity College, Cambridge (the Master of) on
simultaneous magnetical and meteorologi-
cal observations, 54.
Trochus, new species of, 189.
Turritella, new species of, 189.
Undulations, features of the small, 67.
United States, tabular view of ranges of the
barometer, for 27 and 37 hourly observa-
tions at the equinoxes and solstices in the,
during 1836, 1837, and part of 1838, 85.
Urus, on the remains of, in Great Britain,
232.
Vermetus, new species of, 189.
Vertices, tables illustrative of the coincidence
of, 67.
Water, action of, on cast and wrought iron
and steel, 1.
Wheatstone’s (Prof.) appendix to report on
captive balloons, 128.
Whewell (Rev. W.) on revising the nomen-
clature of the stars, 292.
Zoological nomenclature, 119.
Zoophytes, scarcity of, in the Aigean Sea, 151.
——,, on Trish, 283.
[ 108 ]}
INDEX Il.
TO
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.
Acips, improved method of ascertaining
the commercial value of, 37.
Aden, observations with the thermometer
made at, 22.
Agriculture of Cork, chemical suggestions on
the, 38.
Alder (J.) on some new species of Mollusca
nudibranchiata, with observations on the
structure and development of the animals
of that order, 73.
Alkalies, improved method of ascertaining
the commercial value of, 37.
Allman (Dr.) on certain peculiarities in the
arteries of the six-banded Armadillo, 68.
— on Plumatella repens, 74.
— on an Annelid from the bogs of the
south of Ireland, 76.
—— on the genus Cirropteron, Sars, 77.
— on a new genus of terrestrial gastero-
pod, 77.
——, synopsis of the genera and species of
Zoophytes inhabiting the fresh waters of
Treland, 77.
— ona Linaria gathered in Ireland, 78.
Amputation, statistical results of, 84.
Andrews (Dr.) on the heat of combination,
32.
Aneurism, treatment of external, by pressure,
80.
Antigua, on the late earthquake at the island
of, 59.
Apjohn (Dr. J.) on the correction to be ap-
plied for moisture to the barometric for-
mula, 20.
— on a new method of testing the hygro-
metric formula usually applied to observa-
tions made with a wet and dry thermo-
meter, 36.
— on the chemistry of the arsenites, 37.
Arabia, observations with the thermometer
made at Aden in, 22.
Arbroath, on the flux and reflux of the sea,
July 5, 1843, at, 18.
Armadillo, on certain peculiarities of the six-
banded, 68.
Armstrong (W.) on the electricity of high-
pressure steam, and a description of a
hydro-electric machine, 39.
Arsenic, on the tests for, 87.
Arsenites, chemistry of the, 37.
Astronomer Royal, letter from the Earl of
Rosse to the, on numerous traces of gla-
cier-friction on the north-west side of Ban-
try Bay, 62.
Atmosphere, electricity of the, 15.
Baltic, apparent fall or diminution of water
in the, 59.
Barometer, nature and causes of the diurnal
oscillations of the, 19.
Beamish (Major N. L.) on the apparent fall
or diminution of water in the Baltic, and
elevation of the Scandinavian coast, 59.
——,, statistical report of the parish of St.
Michael, 87.
Beddgelert, meteorological register for 1842—
43, from diurnal observations taken at, 20,
Bevan (Dr.) on the tests for arsenic, 87.
Bianconi (Mr.) on certain public convey-
ances established in Ireland, 92.
ee ducts, on a peculiar disease of the,
Je
Birds, periodical, observed in 1842 and 1843,
near Llanrwst, 69.
——, natural affinities of the insessorial order
of, 69.
Blackwall (John) periodical birds observed
in the years 1842 and 1843, near Llanrwst,
69.
Blood, circulation of the, in acardiac foetuses,
81.
Bodies, changes which they undergo in the
dark, 10.
, inelasticity of, 23.
Booth (A.) on the late fires at Liverpool, and
on spontaneous combustion, 39.
on the chemical composition of smoke,
its production and influence on organic
substances, 39.
Botany, 65.
Brewster (Sir David) on the ordinary re-
fraction of Iceland spar, 7.
— on the action of two blue oils upon
light, 8.
Brown (Alex.) on the extraordinary flux and
reflux of the sea at Arbroath, 18.
Calculi,new instrument for the removal of, 81.
a Ra ery Ss 5 GF Ft
INDEX II.
Calculi, description of the sound useful for
the detection of small, 81.
Calculus of probabilities, on some investiga-
tions connected with the, 3.
— of differences, on a theorem in the, 2.
Calothrix nivea, occurrence of, at Cove, Ire-
land, 77.
Carbonates, alkaline, decomposition of the,
by the light of the sun, 33.
Carnegie (Hon. Capt.) on the late earth-
quake at the islands of Antigua and Gua-
daloupe, on Feb. 8, 1843, 59.
Carpenter (Dr. W. B.) on the microscopic
structure of shells, 71.
Catlow (Joseph Peel) on a relation between
the season of death and the anniversary of
the season of birth, which varies with
each month of birth; and on a similarly
varying tendency to death in the anni-
versary of the natal month, 95.
Cerium, on lanthanium and didymium as-
sociated with, 25.
Chanter (John), description of a furnace for
economizing fuel and preventing smoke,
99.
Chemistry, 25.
Chromatype, a new photographic process, 34.
Circle, on determining the index error of a,
by reflexion of the wires of its telescope,
16.
Cirropteron, Sars, on the genus, 77.
Clarke (Rev. B. J.) on the Irish species of
the genus Limax, 73.
Clear (W.).on insects found in the county of
_ Cork, 76.
Clock movement, and new mode of suspend-
ing the pendulum, by Mr. L. Cooke, 101.
Combination, heat of, 32.
Combustion, spontaneous, 39.
Concrete, formation of, 99.
Cooper (E. J.), catalogue of mean places of
fifty telescopic stars observed at Markrea
Castle, 18.
Corfu, geology of, 57.
Cork, chemical suggestions on the agricul-
ture of, 38.
—,, on the minerals of, 38.
——-, on some beds of limestone in the valley
of, 51.
——, on some geological phenomena in the
vicinity of, 51.
—, list of insects found in the county of,
Cronin (Mr.) on the statistical results of am-
putation, 84.
Cuculus glandarius, 71.
Deane (Sir T.) on the method adopted to
raise the Innisfaile steam-vessel from the
Cork river, 101.
Denny (Mr.), letter from Dr. Lankester, on
the hatching and rearing a grey parrot in
England, 71.
Devonian district of Ireland, on the, 46.
Didymium, a new metal, associated with ce-
rium, 25.
109
Differences, on a theorem in the calculus of,
2.
Dircks (Henry) on the production and pre-
vention of smoke, 39.
-— on the prevention of smoke from en-
gine boilers and other furnaces, 98.
—— on the construction of Luntley’s shadow-
less burners, and the shape of glass chim-
neys for lamps, 98.
Dowden (Richard) on a luminous appearance
on the common marigold, 79.
— on the effect of light as a part of vital
statistics, 96.
—— on the heat and warmth of cottages,
96.
Draper (Prof.) on a change produced by ex-
posure to the beams of the sun in the pro-
perties of an elementary substance, 9.
on the decomposition of carbonic acid
gas, and the alkaline carbonates, by the
light of the sun, 33.
Drummond (Capt. H. M.) on birds found in
Corfu and the Ionian Islands, 70.
Earth, variation of the direction and inten-
sity of the magnetic force of the, 12.
Earthquakes, phenomena and theory of, 57.
——,, on the late, at the islands of Antigua
and Guadaloupe, 59.
Economy, on the connexion between statis-
tics and political, 94.
Erbium, a new metal, associated with yttria,
25, 30.
Erichsen (J. E.) on the proximate cause of
death after the spontaneous introduction
of air into the veins, 83.
Erratic blocks, distribution of, in Ireland, 40.
Fauna, British molluscous, on the addition
of the order Nucleobranchia to the, 72.
Floatwater, buoyant, 102.
Fluorine, electro-negative powers of, 39.
Flute, principles of construction adapted to
the perfection of the, 25.
Feetuses, on the circulation of the blood in
acardiac, 81.
Forbes (Prof. E.) on the addition of the order
Nucleobranchia to the British molluscous
fauna, 72.
—— on some living animals taken by means
of the dredge off the coast of Cork, 74.
Formula, barometric, correction to be applied
for moisture to the, 20.
Fossils of the tertiary and alluvial basin of
the Middle Rhine, on the, 55.
— of Polperro, in Cornwall, 56.
Fuchsia, on abnormal forms in the flowers of,
78.
Galvanometer, description of a, 14.
Gas, decomposition of carbonic acid, by the
light of the sun, 33.
Gas-burners, on the construction of Luntley’s
shadowless, 98.
Gasteropod, new genus of terrestrial, 77.
Geography, physical, 40.
110
Geology, 40.
Germany, the “ Permian system” as applied
to, 52.
Gilbert (Mrs.) on the progress of the Wil-
lingdon Agricultural School, 94.
INDEX II.
Herschel (Sir John) on a photographie pro-
cess by which dormant pictures are pro-
duced capable of development by the
breath, = by keeping in a moist atmo-
sphere,
Glaciers, agency of, in transporting rocks, ) Herwood’s G. ) abstract of the report of the
62.
——,, on the cause of the motion of, 62.
Granite and other volcanic rocks of Lundy |
Island, 57.
Graphical representation, method of, as ap-
plied to physical results, 4.
Greene (Dr.) on polishing the specula of
telesco
, 11.
Griffith (Richard) on the distribution of er- |
ratic blocks in Ireland, and particularly
those of the north coasts of the counties
of Sligo and Mayo, 40.
—— on the lower portion of the carbonife-
rous limestone series of Ireland, 42.
— on the old red sandstone, or Devonian
and Silurian districts of Ireland, 46.
— on the occurrence of a bed of sand
containing recent marine shells, on the
summit of a granite hill on the coast of
the county of Mayo, 50.
Grinding, on a process for preventing the de-
leterious effects of dry, 102.
Grollet (J. P.) on a process for preventing
the deleterious effects of dry grinding,
102.
Guadaloupe, on the late earthquake at the
island of, 59.
Hemorrhage, means adopted by nature in
the suppression of, from large arteries, 80.
Haines (Dr. C. Y.) on some beds of limestone
in the valley of Cork, 51.
Hair, on the sudden falling off of the, from
the head, eyebrows and eyelashes, 84.
Hamilton (Sir W. R.) on a theorem in the
calculus of differences, 2.
—— on some investigations connected with
the calculus of probabilities, 3.
on some investigations connected with
equations of the fifth degree, 4.
Hancock (A.) on some new species of Mol-
- Insea nudibranchiata, with observations on
the structure and development of the ani-
mals of that order, 73.
Harmotome, on newly-discovered three-twin
3 , 38.
Harrison (Prof.) on the treatment of external
aneurism by pressure, 80.
Harvey (Dr.) on the Vertebrata of Cork, 68.
Hawkins (J.1.) onthe friction of water against
water, 99.
on the formation of concrete, 99.
on a new oil for lubricating machinery,
—— on the marine propeller invented about
the year 1825 by Mr. Jacob Perkins, 100.
Heat, mechanical value of, 33.
Heath (Mr.) on the physical characters, lan-
guages, and manners of the people of the
Navigators Islands, 67.
French Minister of Public Instruction on
the higher schools of France, 96.
Hincks (Rev. W.) on abnormal forms in the
flowers of Fuchsia, 78.
Hodgkinson (E.), experiments to prove that
all bodies are in some de inelastic, and
a proposed law for estimating the defi-
ciency, 23.
Hopkins (William) on the cause of the mo-
tion of glaciers, 62.
Hoskyn (Mr.) on animals dredged up on the
coast of Ireland, 74.
Houston (Dr.) on the means adopted by
nature in the suppression of hemorrhage
from large arteries, 80.
—on the circulation of the blood in
acardiac foetuses, 81.
Hunt (Robert) on the Sr hse which bodies
undergo in the dark, 1
—— on ooh raya a nae photographie
process, 34
—— on the influence of light on the growth
of plants, 35.
—— on the influence of light on metallic
and other compounds, 35.
Hutchison (G.) on the nature and causes of
the diurnal oscillations of the barometer,
19:
Hydro-electric miachide: description of a, 39.
Hygrometric formula, method of testing the,
as applied to observations made with a
wet and dry thermometer, 36.
Hyndman (Mr.) on specimens of the Nereis
tubicola from the coast of Scotland, 76
Iceland spar, on the ordinary refraction of, 7.
Indicator, on a simple steam-engine, 101.
Infusoria of sulphureous waters at Cove, Ire-
land, 77.
Insects, list of, found in the county of Cork,
76
76.
Todine, electro-negative powers of, 39.
Ireland, on the quantity of rain which falls
in the south-west of, with the wind at the
several points of the compass, 22,
——, distribution of erratic blocks in, 40.
— ,, carboniferous limestone series of, 42.
——, on the old red sandstone or Devonian
and Silurian districts of, 46.
——,, on the pauper lunaties of, 90.
——, on the census in, 91.
——,, on certain public conveyances esta-
blished in, 92.
lhrisor, Lesson, and Upupa, Lin., structure
and affinities of, 70.
Jennings (Francis) on some geological phz-
nomena in the vicinity of Cork, 51.
——, chemical suggestions on the 8
ture of Cork, 38.
INDEX II.
Joule’s (J. P.) description of a galvanometer,
— on the calorific effects of magneto-
electricity and the mechanical value of
heat, 33.
Keleher (Rev. Wm.) on the statistics of the
parish of Kilmurry, a rural district in the
barony of West Muskerry, county of Cork, 93.
Kilmurry, statistics of the parish of, 93.
Kirwan (Dr. R.), eulogium on the late, by
Dr. Pickells, 39.
Knox (Revs. Thomas and Henry) on the
quantity of rain which falls in the 8.W. of
Treland, and in Suffolk, with the wind at
the several points of the compass, 22.
Knox (Rev. T.) on the relative electro-nega-
tive powers of iodine and fluorine, 39.
Lamps, on the shape of glass chimneys for,
Land, method of ascertaining inaccessible
distances, 102.
Lankester (Dr. E.) on the occurrence of Calo-
thrix nivea, and the infusoria of sulphu-
reous waters at Cove, Ireland, 77.
Lanthanium, a new metal, associated with
cerium, 25.
Larcom (Captain) on contour maps, 18.
—— on the census in Ireland, 91.
Lawson (Prof.) on the connexion between
statistics and political economy, 94.
Leahy (Mr. P.) on a method of ascertaining
inaccessible distances at sea or land, 102.
Leatham (W.) on the present infecting and
demoralizing state of the lodging-houses
for the travelling poor in the towns and
villages of England, 96.
Lichens, on the economical uses of certain, 79.
Life-preservers, on, invented by Mr. J. E.
Purser, 101.
Light, action of two blue oils upon, 8.
——,, elliptic polarization in, reflected from
various substances, 9.
——,, influence of, on metallic and other
compounds, 35.
——,, influence of, on the growth of plants, 35.
—, effect of, as a part of vital statistics, 96.
Limax, on the Irish species of the genus, 73.
Limestone, on some beds of, in the valley of
Cork, 51.
Limestone series, carboniferous, on the lower
portion of the, of Ireland, 42.
Linaria, on specimens of a, from Ireland, 78.
Liverpool, on the late fires at, 39.
Lloyd (Prof.) on the method of graphical
representation, as applied to physical re-
sults, 4.
— on the phenomena of metallic reflex-
ion, 6.
—— on the regular variations of the direc-
tion and intensity of the earth’s magnetic
. force, 12.
Lodging-houses, infecting and demoralizing
state of the, for the travelling poor in
England, 96.
111
Lunacy, statistics of, with special relation to
the asylum in Cork, 96.
Lunatics, on the pauper, of Ireland, 90.
Lundy Island, on the granite and other vol-
canic rocks of, 57.
Lungs, treatment of gangrene of the, by
chloride of lime, 82.
MacCullagh (Prof.) on the theory of total
reflexion, and of the insensible refraction
which accompanies it, 4.
——, remark relative to Sir D. Brewster’s
notice on the ordinary refraction of Iceland
spar, 7.
M’ Evers (Dr.) ona peculiarcase of sterility, 87.
Machine, new electrical, 15.
Mackay (Mr.) on the Irish Saxifrages, 78.
Magneto-electricity, calorific effects of, 33.
Magnets, circumstances which affect the
energy of artificial, 13.
Mammalia, classification of the, 65.
Manganese, oxides of, improved method of
ascertaining the commercial value of, 37.
Map, relievo, of England and Wales, co-
loured geologically, on a, 64.
Maps, contour, 18.
Marigold, luminous appearance on the com-
mon, 79.
Mathematics, 1,
Mayer (Signor Enrico) on the infant indus-
trial schools of Tuscany, 93.
Mechanical science, 96.
Medical science, 79.
Metallic and other compounds, influence of
light on, 35.
Meteorological register for 1842-43, from
diurnal observations taken at Beddgelert,
20.
Minerals of Cork, on the, 38.
Mines, apparatus for raising miners and mi-
nerals from the deep vertical shafts of, 100.
Molluse, new species of, found at Dalkey
Island, near Dublin, 74.
Mollusca of Cork, on the, 71.
Mollusca ‘nudibranchiata, on some new spe-
cies of, 73.
Mosander (Prof. C. G.) on the new metals
lanthanium and didymium, which are as-
sociated with cerium ; and on erbium and
terbium, new metals associated with yttria,
25; addendum, 30.
Moyes (Corporal William), observations with
the thermometer, made at Aden in Ara-
bia, 22.
Murchison (R. I.), the “ Permian system” as
applied to Germany, with collateral obser-
vations on similar deposits in other coun-
tries, 52.
—— on the important additions recently
made to the fossil contents of the tertiary
and alluyial basin of the Middle Rhine, 55.
Museum, on the Ordnance geological, 61.
Navigators Islands, physical characters, lan-
guages, and manners of the people of the,
112
Neottia gemmipara, 78.
Nereis tubicola, on specimens from the coast
of Scotland, 76.
Nott (John) on a new electrical machine, and
upon the electricity of the atmosphere, 15.
Nucleobranchia, on the addition of the or-
der, to the British molluscous fauna, 72.
O’Connor (Dr.) on the sudden falling off of
the hair of the head, eyebrows, and eye-
lashes from fright, 84.
Mnanthe crocata, deleterious effects of, 81.
O’Flanagan (Mr.), description of the Black-
water river, 93.
Oil, on a new, for lubricating machinery, 99.
Oils, action of two blue, upon light, 8.
Olliffe (Dr.) on a peculiar disease of the
biliary ducts, 79.
—— on intestinal obstruction, 82.
Osborne (Dr.) on the statistics of lunacy,
with special relation to the asylum in
Cork, 96.
Peach (C. W.) on the fossils of Polperro in
Cornwall, 56.
po inp barometric compensation of the,
17.
——, new mode of suspending the, 101.
“Permian system,” on the, as applied to
Germany, 52.
Phillips (Prof. J.) on certain movements in
the parts of stratified rocks, 60.
on the Ordnance geological museum, 61.
Photography, chromatype anew process of, 34.
——,, on a new process of, by which dormant
pictures are produced capable of develop-
ment by the breath, or by keeping in a
moist atmosphere, 8.
Physical results, method of graphical repre-
sentation as applied to, 4.
Physics, 1.
Pickells (Dr.), eulogium on the late Richard
Kirwan, LL.D., 39.
— on the deleterious effects of @nanthe
crocata, 81.
Plants, influence of light on the growth of, 35.
——, catalogue of, found in the neighbour-
hood of Cork, 79.
Plumatella repens, 74.
Polarization, elliptic, in light, reflected from
various substances, 9.
Polperro, fossils of, 56.
Popham (John) on the treatment of gangrene
of the lungs by chloride of lime, 82.
, statistical returns of the North Cork
Infirmary during a period of five years,
from July 1838 to July 1843, 84.
Portlock (Capt.) on the geology of Corfu, 57.
Powell (Rey. Prof.) on elliptic polarization in
light reflected from various substances, 9.
——, contributions to academical statistics,
Oxford, 95.
Power (Dr.) on plants found in the neigh-
bourhood of Cork, 79.
Prichard (John) meteorological register for
1842-43, from diurnal observations taken
INDEX II.
at Beddgelert, in the county of Caernar-
von, 20.
Propeller, on the marine, 100.
Pycnonotus chrysorrhaus, specimen of, shot
near Waterford, 71.
Railway, atmospheric, on the opening of the
Kingstown and Dublin line of, 101.
Rain, quantity of, which falls in the south-
west of Ireland and in Suffolk, with the
wind at the several points of the com-
pass, 22.
Reflexion, theory of total, and of the insen-
sible refraction which accompanies it, 4.
——, attempt to explain theoretically the
phenomena of metallic, 6.
Rhine, Middle, important additions recently
made to the fossil contents of the tertiary
and alluvial basin of the, 55.
Robinson (Rev. Dr.) on determining the in-
dex error of a circle by reflexion of the
wires of its telescope, 16.
on the barometric compensation of the
pendulum, 17; addendum to, 102.
Rocks, stratified, on certain movements in
the parts of, 60.
——, agency of glaciers in transporting, 62.
Rogers (H. D.) on the pheenomena and theory
of earthquakes, and the explanation they
afford of certain facts in geological dyna-
mics, 57.
Rosse (the Earl of), letter from the Astrono-
mer Royal to, on numerous traces of glacier-
friction on the north-west side of Bantry
Bay, 62.
Russell (Scott) on the application of our
knowledge of the laws of sound to the con-
struction of buildings, 96.
Ryan (Mr.) on the application of water as a
moving power, 99.
Sabine (Col.) on the agency of glaciers in
transporting rocks, 62.
Sandstone, old red, of freland, 46.
Saxifrages, on the Irish, 78.
Schools, on the infant industrial, of Tus-
cany, 93.
Scoresby (Rev. W.) on the circumstances
which affect the energy of artificial mag-
nets, 13.
Sea, flux and reflux of the, at Arbroath,
July 5, 1843, 18.
——, method of ascertaining inaccessible
distances at, 102.
Shells, on the occurrence of a bed of sand
containing recent marine, 50.
——, microscopic structure of, 71.
Silk manufacture, on the Irish, 89.
Silurian district of Ireland, on the, 46.
Sleigh (Capt. A. W.) on the buoyant float-
water, 102.
Smoke, chemical composition of, its produc-
tion and influence on organic substances, 39.
, production and prevention of, 39.
——, on the prevention of, from engine'boilers
and other furnaces, 98.
INDEX II.
Smoke, description of a furnace for econo-
mizing fuel and preventing, 99.
——, model of Mr. Juckes’s furnace for burn-
ing, 99.
Sound, on the application of our knowledge
of the laws of, to the construction of build-
ings, 96.
Spar, Iceland, on the ordinary refraction of, 7.
Specula of telescopes, on polishing the, 11.
Stars, catalogue of mean places of fifty tele-
' scopic, observed at Markrea castle by E. J.
Cooper, 18.
Statistics, 87.
——, on the connexion between, and poli-
tical economy, 94.
——, contributions to academical, 95.
Steam, electricity of high-pressure, 39.
Steam-vessel, method adopted to raise the
Innisfaile, from the Cork river, 101.
St. Michael, statistical report of the parish
of, 87.
Strickland (H. E.) on the natural affinities of
the insessorial order of birds, 69.
—— on the structure and affinities of Upupa,
Lin., and Trrisor, Lesson, 70.
Suffolk, on the quantity of rain which falls in,
with the wind at the several points of the
compass, 22.
Sun, change produced by exposure to the
beams of the, in the properties of an ele-
mentary substance, 9.
——, decomposition of carbonic acid gas,
and the alkaline carbonates, by the light
of the, 33.
- Tamnau (Dr. F.) on newly-discovered three-
_ _ twin crystals of Harmotome, 38.
Taylor (J.) on a steam-engine for the pur-
pose of draining the lake of Haarlem,
100.
—— on a simple steam-engine indicator, 101.
Taylor (Dr. W. C.) on the Irish silk manu-
facture, 89.
—— onthe pauper lunatics of Ireland, from
materials supplied by the Earl of Devon,
90
Telescopes, on polishing the specula of, 11.
——, on determining the index error of a
__ circle by reflexion of the wires of its, 16.
_Terbium, anew metal, associated with yttria,
25, 30.
o
‘
ND,
i
THE
113
Thermometer, observations made with the,
at Aden in Arabia, 22.
——, method of testing the hygrometric for-
mula, as applied to observations made with
a wet and dry, 36.
Thomas (Mr.) on abnormal tides, 19.
Thompson (Wm.) on additions to the fauna
of Ireland, 73.
Thompson (Mr.) on the Alpine hare, 68.
Tides, abnormal, 19.
sean (R. W.) on the minerals of Cork,
Tuscany, on the infant industrial schools of,
93.
Upupa, Lin., and hrisor, Lesson, structure
and affinities of, 70.
Veins, proximate cause of death after the
spontaneous introduction of air into the, 83.
Vertebrata of Cork, on the, 68.
‘Ward (Cornelius) on the principles of con-
struction adapted to the perfection of the
flute, 25.
Water, apparent fall or diminution of, in the
* Baltic, 59.
——, application of, as a moving power, 99.
Waterhouse (G. R.) on the classification of
the Mammalia, 65.
Wherland (Dr.) on a rare-case of midwifery
which occurred in the Cork South District
Lying-in Hospital in July 1843, 84,
Will (Dr.) on an improved method of ascer-
taining the commercial value of alkalies,
or carbonated alkalies, acids, and oxides of
manganese, 37. ;
Williams (Rev. D.) on the granite and other
voleanic rocks of Lundy Island, 57.
Wood (Dr.) on the economical uses of cer-
tain lichens, 79.
Woodcock, on the nidification of the, in Ire-
land, 71.
Yttria, on erbium and terbium associated
with, 25, 30.
Zoology, 65.
Zoophytes, synopsis of the genera and spe-
cies of, inhabiting the fresh waters of
Treland, 77.
END.
a OE eel! - 3 —_ : =< : : :
Sertenber 1942, : ; BAROMETRIC UNDULATIONS OBSERVED AT -
wu 20 Da
oO o
Days
um
ours 0.
oan nen nana a
| Figure 1
|
inches = L a ==! =
From maatmum of S@ptaribar 14" to mac
October 1842.
pays 18 Ip ~ 20
Howe § 6 8 Bb a = aie 0 0
—-
Indes .
Figure @ |
|
4
1 : |
|
|
indice
| ji le 2
From maainum of dobar HY to maximum of Otober 31812. Intaval betwen the masima 17 days. The continiiw of the Wave appears to have been broken by the undulations of the 19to 237 and. of the 4 ana. 264 produang the Io subordinate macuna mentioned in the Report.
suptember hy? Vetober
Days 30 Us Ke vl October 2 3 7 6
IOUT G9 65g) REIS ES Soe ad —L. —_— ———— ~ aE _ —
nbn. noon | |
|
SO Inches ]
Figure 3
| | \ ee |
From Sqptembe0 Yt October Ib “shewing two well detined undidations having thar respective maxima or the Mand 9% of Qdoba
October SR. Novernber
Dans ap 1 2
Hours 0.9 8 yi a yu 0 ee é
se
ie __
30 Inches | —— a +| -
|
|
|
a SS! = oe
Trom Odober 31 to Novanber ? Newing a similar depression to Hat of the early part or October
TER SQUARE, LONDON, BY W.
y
R. BIRT.
—
d
= t —=—s
ie: a.
a ere = 4
-
a ~~ eee ee
ae
ae
|
This Curve ts continued at Fig4.
Ps 8 D |
— = =| - |
re jE |
: This Gurve ws continued at Fig. 2.
wy
o
This Plate exhibits the Barometrie Undulations tron September
to Novembar 471992. consisting oF two larger, exh having
avinterval of IT days, figures 1S: 2; and four salen, Figures
dard 4,
JB. The Mtitudes of the Barometer are laid down as observed
without the application of any correction whatever.
This curve is continued on Plate 2— Londow. :
= n jus A "es je ” 2 ee
ea
a
DUBLIN. 5
ws 7 b Ts | 7
= Ca I =_ a @ 0 ce a _ a -
ca —— “
oa
.
LONDON,
MUNI€ HH.
| |
Side! —— i 2 & acs a
| ee &
| : |
7 P ( Dro ) j ; aH > - y ase i ; Grea - i - LW Lowry fiuip.
Ajmmebial Barometuc Wart of Mevember Chernal it Lublenty Tripper Loyd, utLondenby MWA Birt, anda Munich by Dtinont i
: 2 8. Th rameter at Dublin and Lonient are prajected ax observed. Hare «Munich axe Been risiicet t O°R. prarously
q
Vhurteenth Report of the Brit. Assoc: tor the advancament of Si cience 16%.
Q; he Veen lenges of DLpviphean; Kites
athe Wd Sj pth ithe > CNL?
ry " Slt ; Pa
kegions of Depth.
Seale of Percentages.
Conchitera Dimy aria.
Conchirera Menemvaria.
Siphonostomatous Spiral Univalves.
Aspiral Cnivalves.
————____— leolestomatous Spiral Univaives
—_—--_—_-—_—___—_- --——-
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Adam, Walter, M.D., 39, George’s Square,
Edinburgh.
Adare, Edwin, Viscount, M.P.,F.R.S.,F.R.A.S.,
F.G.S., Dunraven Castle, Glamorganshire.
Ainsworth, Thomas, Egremont, Ulverstone,
Cumberland.
Aldam, William, Warmsworth, Doncaster.
Alexander, William Maxwell, Southbarr, near
Paisley.
Allecock,Samuel,Arlington Place,Manchester.
Allis, Thomas, York.
Amery, John, F.8.A., Park House, Stour-
bridge, Worcestershire.
Ansted, D.T., F.G.S., Fellow of Jesus College,
Cambridge, Professor of Geology in King’s
College, London.
Ashton, Thomas, M.D., 71, Mosley Street,
Manchester.
Atkinson, Joseph B., 5, Freemantle Square,
Bristol.
Auldjo, John, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., Noel
House, Kensington.
Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Hon.
M.R.LA., F.R.A.S., M.C.P.S., 1, Dorset
Street, Manchester Square, London.
Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., St. John’s College, Cambridge.
Backhouse, John Church, Darlington.
Baddeley, Fred. H., Capt. R.E., Fort George.
Bain, John, Portreath, Redruth.
Bain, Richard, Gwennap, Truro.
Ball, William, Rydall, near Ambleside, West-
moreland.
Barbour, Robert, Portland Street, Manchester.
Barker, George, F.R.S., Birmingham.
Barker, Richard, M.D., M.R.D.S., 6, Gar-
diner’s Row, Dublin.
Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle.
Barnett, Richard.
Barton, John, 44, St, Mary Street, Dublin,
Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., Poplar Institution,
East India Road; and Excise Office, Broad
Street, London.
Bayldon, John, York.
Beamish, Richard, F.R.8., Sans Souci, Prest-
bury, Cheltenham.
Beaufoy, Henry, F.R.S., F.L.S., South Lam-
beth, London.
Bell, Thomas, Picton Place, Newcastle-on-
'yne.
Binyon, Alfred, Mayfield, Manchester.
Binyon,Thomas,St.Ann’s Square, Manchester.
Bird, William, 5, Old Church Yard, Liverpool.
Birks, Thomas Rawson, Watton, near Ware.
Birley, Richard, Upper Brook St., Manchester.
Blackwall, John, F.L.S,, Oakland, Llanrwst,
Denbighshire.
Blackwell, Thomas E., F.G.S., Foxhangers,
Devizes.
Blake, William, Silver Street, Taunton.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D.,F.R.S., Birmingham.
Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.R.A.S., Lilley Rectory, near Luton, Bed-
fordshire.
Blood, Bindon, M.R.LA., F.RS.E., 22,
Queen Street, Edinburgh.
Boddington, Benjamin, Burcher,near Kington,
Herefordshire.
Bompas, George G., M.D., Fish Ponds, Bristol.
Bompas, G. J., M.D., Fish Ponds, Bristol.
Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy, Ireland.
Botfield, Thomas, F.R.S., F.G.S., Hopton
Court, Bewdley, Worcestershire.
Boughton, Sir William E. Rouse, Bart.,
F.R.S., Downton Hall, near Ludlow, Shrop-
shire.
Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Stratford,
Essex.
Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.
Briggs, Major-General John, E.1.C.S., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., M.R.A.S., 3, St. James’s Square,
Cheltenham.
Bright, Benjamin Heywood, F.G.S., Ham
Green, near Bristol.
Brisbane, Lt.-General Sir Thomas Makdougall,
120
Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S.
L. & E., Hon. M.R.LA., F.R.A.S., Makers-
town, Kelso.
Brockedon, Philip N., 29, Devonshire Street,
Queen’s Square, London.
Brogden, John, jun., Ardwick Place, Man-
chester.
Brooke, Charles, 35, Keppel Street, Russell Sq.,
London.
Brown, William, Douglas, Isle of Man.
Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock.
Bruce, Haliday, M.R.D.S., 37, Dame Street,
Dublin.
Brunel, Isambard Kingdom, F.R.S., 18, Duke
Street, Westminster.
Buck, George Watson, Manchester.
Buckland, Rey. William, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Canon of Christ Church, and Professor of
Mineralogy and Geology in the University
of Oxford.
Buller, Sir Antony, Pound, Tavistock, Devon.
Bulman, John, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe, Man-
chester.
Burke, Francis, 5, Upper Rutland St., Dublin.
Burlington, William, Earl of, M.A., FE.R.S.,
F.G.S., Chancellor of the University of
London, 10, Belgrave Square.
Campbell, James, Candleriggs, Glasgow.
Campbell, William, 34, Candlerigg Street,
Glasgow.
Carew, William H. Pole, Antony House, near
Devonport.
Care, Joseph, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S.,
Penzance.
Carpenter, Rev. Philip Pearsall, B.A., Stand,
Pilkington, Manchester.
Carr, William, Blackheath, Kent.
Cartmell, James, Christ's College, Cambridge.
Cayley, Sir George, Bart., Brompton, North
Riding of Yorkshire.
Chadwick, Hugo Mavesyn, Mavesyn-Ridware,
near Rugeley.
Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge,
Cambridge.
Chanter, John, Wine Office Court, Fleet St.,
London.
Chatterton, Sir William, Bart., Castlemahon,
Cork.
Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Manchester.
Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessorof Mathematics and Astronomy in the
University of Durham.
Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert, Lord
Bishop of, 38, Park Street, Grosvenor Sq.
Chiswell, Thos., 63, Faulkner St., Manchester.
Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., Professor of
Mathematics in the Royal Military Aca-
demy, Woolwich, Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S., The
Common, Woolwich.
Clark, Francis, Hazelwood, near Birmingham.
Clay, J. Travis, Rastrick, near Huddersfield.
Coathupe, Charles Thornton, Wraxall, Bristol.
Cocker, Jonathan, 28,Crown Street, Liverpool.
BOOK SUBSCRIBERS.
Compton, Lord Alwyne, Castle Ashby, North-
amptonshire.
Consterdine, James, Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester.
Conway,Charles,Pontnwydd Works, Newport,
Monmouthshire.
Conybeare, Rev. William Daniel, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., Axminster.
Corbet, Richard, Adderley Hall, Shropshire.
Cottam, Samuel E., F.R.A.S., Brazennose
Street, Manchester.
rane Rey. William C., M.A., Windsor, Berk-
shire.
Courtney, Henry, 27, Upper Mount St., Dublin.
Cox, Joseph, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
Crampton, Philip C., Hon. Judge, 50, Lower
Baggott Street, Dublin.
Crane, George, F.G.S., Yniscedwyn Iron
Works, Swansea.
Crewdson,ThomasD.,DaccaMills,Manchester.
Creyke, Capt. Richard, R.N., 7, Albemarle
Villas, Stoke, Devonport.
Crichton, William, Glasgow.
Crompton, Rev. Joseph, Norwich.
Crooke, G. W., Town Hall, Liverpool.
Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants.
Dalby, Rev. William, Compton Basset, near
Calne, Wilts.
Dalton, Rev. James Edward, M.A., Queen’s
College, Cambridge.
Daniell, John Frederic, For. Sec. R.S., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry, King’sCollege, London,
and Examiner in Chemistry and Forensic
Medicine in the University of London;
Norwood.
Darbishire, Samuel D., Manchester.
Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D., Ald-
rich’s Professor of Chemistry, Regius Pro-
fessor of Botany, Oxford, F.R.S., Hon.
M.R.LA., F.L.S., F.G.S., Oxford.
Davenport, Edward Davies, F.R.S., 28, Lower
Brook Street, London. ‘
Dawes, Rey. William Rutter, F.R.A.S., 3,
Allsop Place, Regent’s Park, London.
Dawson, Henry, 14, St. James’s Terrace, Li-
verpool.
Deane, Sir Thomas, Dundanion Castle, Cork.
Dickinson, John,67,Stephen’s Green, Dublin.
Dilke, C. Wentworth, jun., 76, Sloane Street,
London.
Donkin, Thomas, F.R.A.S., Westow, near
Whitwell, York.
Downie, Alexander, Crosbastat, Glasgow.
Drury, William, M.D., Garn Gad Hill, Glasgow.
Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House, Fin-
glass, Co. Dublin.
Dury, Rev. Theodore, Westmill, near Bunt-
ingford, Herts.
Ebrington, Lord, 17, Grosvenor Sq., London.
Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart.,
M.P., F.R.S.,F.G.S., Oulton Park, Cheshire.
Ellis, Rey. Robert, A.M., Grimstone House,
Malton, Yorkshire.
Ellis, Thomas Flower, jun., M.A., F.R.A.S.,
15, Bedford Place, London.
Enys, John Samuel, F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall.
BOOK SUBSCRIBERS.
Exley, Rev: Thomas, A.M., Bristol.
Fairbairn, William, Manchester.
Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. Mem.
R.S.E., F.G.S., Fullerian Professor of Che-
mistry in the Royal Institution of Great
Britain, 21, Albemarle Street, London.
Fellows, Charles, F.R.G.S., 30, Russell
Square, London.
Fisher, Rev. J. M., M.A., 34, South Hanover
Street, Edinburgh.
Fisher, Rev. Thomas, A.M., Luccombe, Mine-
head, Somerset.
Fleming, Colonel James, Kinlochlaich, Appin,
Argyleshire.
Fleming, W. M., Barochan, Renfrewshire.
Fleming, William, M.D., Manchester.
Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Manchester.
Flower, Rey. William, jun., M.A., York.
Forbes, James David, F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E.,
F.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
the University of Edinburgh.
Forbes, John, M.D., F.R.S., 12, Old Burling-
ton Street, London.
Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling.
Forster, Robert, A.B., Springfield, Dungan-
non, Ireland.
Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ireland.
Foster, John, M.A., Clapham, Surrey.
Fowler, Robert, 19, Merrion Square South,
Dublin.
Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthar, near Truro.
Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth.
Fullarton, Allan, Greenock.
Gadsden, Augustus William, F.S.A., Hull.
Gibbins, William, Falmouth.
Gilbert, John Davies, M.A., F.R.S., East
Bourne, Sussex.
Goff, William, Moat, Ireland.
Goodman, John, Salford, Lancashire.
Gordon, James, 46, Park Street, Bristol.
Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, A.M., Dela-
mont, Killyleigh, Downshire.
Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, A.B., Box-
moor, Herts.
Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering.
Grzme, James, Garvock, Perth.
-Graham, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E.., Pro-
. fessor of Chemistry in University College,
London; 9, Torrington Square, London.
Grahame, Captain Duncan, Irvine, Scotland.
Graves, Rev. Charles, A.M., 2, Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin.
Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D., Brigown
Glebe, Mitchelstown, Ireland.
Gray, John, Greenock.
Gray, John Edward, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
British Museum.
-Gray, William, jun., F.G.S., York.
Greenaway, Edward, 9, River Terrace, Isling-
ton, London.
Greenock, Major-General Lord, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S., 12, Carlton Place, Edin-
burgh.
Greswell, Rev. Richard, M.A., F.R.S., Beau-
mont Street, Oxford.
Griffin, John Joseph, Glasgow.
121
Griffith, Richard, F.G.S., Fitzwilliam Street,
Dublin.
Grooby, Rev. James, B.A., F.R.A.S., Swindon,
Wiltshire.
Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, Rathdrum,
Co. Wicklow.
Hailstone, Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S., Horton
Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Hall, Rey. T. B., Coggeshall, Essex.
Hallam, Henry, M.A., F.R.S., V.P.S.A.,
F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Wilton Crescent, London.
Hamilton, Sir William Rowan,LL.D.,M.R.1.A.,
F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal of Ireland,
and Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Dublin.
Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Peru.
Hamilton, William John, Sec.G.S., 12, Bolton
Row, Piccadilly, London.
Hamlin, Capt. Thomas, Greenock.
Harcourt, Rev. William Vernon, M.A., F.R.S.,
Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S., Bolton Percy, York.
Hare, Charles John, M.B. & M.L., 9, Lang-
ham Place, London.
Harley, John, Wain Worn, Pontypool.
Harris, George William, London Works, Bir-
mingham.
Harter, William, Broughton, Manchester.
Hartley, Jesse, Trentham Street, Liverpool.
Harvey, Joseph C., Youghal, Co. Cork.
Hatfeild, William, M.A., F.G.S., Newton
Kyme, Tadcaster.
Haughton, William, 28, City Quay, Dublin.
Hawkins, John Isaac, 26, Judd Place West,
New Road, London.
Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., Sharpham Park,
Glastonbury.
Hawkshaw, John, F.G.S., Islington, near
Salford.
Haworth, George, Rochdale.
Hawthorn, Robert, C.E., Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Henry, Alexander, Portland St., Manchester.
Henry, William Charles, M.D., Haffield, Led-
bury, Herefordshire.
Henslow, Rev. John Stevens, M.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., Prof. of Botany in the University of
Cambridge; Hitcham, Bildeston, Suffolk.
Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham.
Herbert, The Rev. William, Dean of Man-
chester, Manchester.
Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.S.A., Acresfield,
Manchester.
Hill, Rev. Edw., M.A., Christ Church, Oxford.
Hill, Rowland, 1, Orme Square, Bayswater.
Hill, Thomas Wright, Bruce Castle, Totten-
ham.
Hill, Thomas, 28, Ardwick Green, Manchester.
Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick.
Hoare, George Tooker, Godstone, Surrey.
Hoblyn, Thomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., White Barns,
Buntingford, Herts.
Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.S., 17, Crescent,
Salford, Manchester.
Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool.
Holden, Moses, 13, Jordan Street, Preston.
Holditch, Rev. Hamnett, Caius College, Cam-
bridge.
122
Holland, P. H., 86, Grosvenor Street, Man-
chester.
Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.D.S., 50, Harcourt
Street, Dublin.
Hopkins, William, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.AS.,
St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
Horner, Leonard, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., 2,
Bedford Place, Russell Square, London.
Horsfield, George, 3, George St., Manchester.
Houldsworth, Henry, Newton Street, Man-
chester.
Hoyle, John, Ducie Street, Manchester.
Hudson, Henry, M.D.,M.R.LA., 24, Stephen’s
Green, Dublin.
Hull, William D., F.G.8., Fairburn, Rostrevor,
Treland.
Hulse, Edward, All Souls College, Oxford.
Hunter, Adam, M.D., Leeds.
Hutchison, Graham, Glasgow,
Hutton, Robert, F.G.S., M.R.LA., Putney
Park, Surrey.
Hutton, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., Newcastle-
on-Tyne.
Ibbetson, L. L. Boscawen, F.G.S., Polytech-
nic Institution, London.
Ingram, Thomas Wells, 85, Bradford Street,
Birmingham.
Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Blackwater
Town, Armagh.
Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough.
Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.B., F.L.S.,
Jardine Hall, Applegarth, by Lockerbie,
Dumfries-shire.
Jee, Alfred S., Dinting Vale, Manchester.
Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.G.S., Professor
of Divinity and Ecclesiastical History in
the University of Durham.
Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.C.P.S., Swaffham Bulbeck, Cambridge-
shire.
Jerrard,George Birch,B.A., WestPark, Bristol.
Johnson,Thomas, 24, York Street, Manchester.
Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde, Bart.,
M.A., M.P., F.R.S.E., F.G.8., 27, Gros-
venor Square, London.
Johnstone, James, Aloa, near Alloa, Stirling-
shire.
Jones, Christopher Hird, 2, Castle Street,
Liverpool.
Jones, Josiah, 2, Castle Street, Liverpool.
Jones, Robert,59, Pembroke Place, Liverpool.
Jones, Major Edward, Plympton, Plymouth.
Joule, James Prescott, New Bailey Street,
Salford.
Joule, Benjamin, jun., New Bailey Street,
Salford.
Jubb, Abraham, Halifax.
Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House, Bury,
Lancashire.
Keleher, William, 28, Patrick Street, Cork.
Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire.
Kenrick, Samuel, Handsworth, Birmingham.
Kerr, Archibald, Glasgow.
Kerr, Robert, jun., Glasgow.
Knox, G. James, 1, Maddox Street, Regent
Street, London.
BOOK SUBSCRIBERS.
Knowles, Edward R. J., 23, George Street,
Ryde, Isle of Wight.
Knowles, William, 15, Park Place, Clifton,
Bristol.
Lacy, Henry C., jun., Kenyon House, Man-
chester.
Langton, William, Manchester.
Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L.,
F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 52, Berke-
ley Square, London.
Larcom, Captain. Thomas, R.E., Phenix
Park, Dublin.
La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A., Castle
Street, Dublin.
bast Henry, Byerley Hall, Bradford, York-
shire
Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield.
Lee, Rey. James Prince, King Edward’s
School, Birmingham.
Lefroy, Lieut., R.A., Woolwich.
Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., F.G.S., High
Legh, Cheshire.
Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of, F.H.S.,
F.Z.S., Carton House, Maynooth.
Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.H.S., 46, Charles Street, Berkeley Square,
London.
Lewis, Capt. T. Locke, R.E., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Ibsley Cottage, near Exeter.
Liddell, Andrew, Glasgow.
Lindsay, Henry L., C.E., Armagh.
Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., 5, Token-
house Yard, London.
Lloyd,Rev.Humphrey, D.D.,F.R.S.,M.R.LA.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy, Trinity
College, Dublin.
Lloyd, William Horton, F.S.A., F.L.S., 1,
Park Square West, Regent’s Park, London.
Lock, Sir Joseph, Oxford.
Lockey, Rev. Francis, Swanswick, Bath.
Logan, William Edmond, F.G.S., 4, York
Gate, Regent’s Park, London.
Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A., V.P.
& Treas. R.S., F.L.S., F.R.AS., 23, St.
James’s Place, London.
Lucas, William, The Mills, Sheffield.
Lutwidge, Charles, M.A., at R. W. 8. Lut-
widge’s, Esq., Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn.
Lyell, Charles, jun., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
I.G.S., 16, Hart St., Bloomsbury, London.
M‘All, Rev. Edward, Brighstone, Newport,
Isle of Wight.
Macartney, James, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA.,
F.L.S., Professor of Anatomy, Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, 35, Upper Merrion Street,
Dublin.
MacBrayne, Robert, Barony Glebe, Glasgow.
MacCullagh, James, LL.D., Professor of Ma-
thematics in the University of Dublin.
M‘Culloch, George, 6, St. Mary Street, Mary
Square, Lambeth.
MacDonnell, Rey. Richard, Trinity College,
Dublin.
M‘Ewan, John, Glasgow.
Mackenzie, Sir Francis A., Bart., Kinellan,
by Dingwall.
BOOK SUBSCRIBERS. 123
Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S., Head-
ingley, Leeds.
Martineau, Rev. James, 12, Mason Street,
Edgehill, Liverpool.
Mather, Daniel, 58,Mount Pleasant, Liverpool.
Mather, John, 58, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool.
Maxwell, Robert Percival, Finnebrogue,
Downpatrick.
Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.I.A., 22, Upper
Merrion Street, Dublin.
Meadows, James, Green Hill, Greenheys,
Manchester.
Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter.
Moilliet, J. L., Hampstéad Hall, Birmingham.
Money, Rev. Kyrie Ernie, M.A., Much March
Vicarage, Ledbury, Herefordshire.
More, John Schauk, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
Murchison, Roderick Impey, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Hon.M.R.LA., F.L.S., 16, Belgrave Square,
London.
“Napier, Johnstone, Dinting Vale, Manchester.
Newman, Francis William, 4, Cavendish
Place, Manchester.
Newman, William Lewin, F.R.AS., St. He-
len’s Square, York.
Nicholls, John Ashton, Ancoats Crescent,
Manchester.
Nicholson, John A., M.D., Balrath, Kells,
Co. Meath, Ireland.
Northampton, Spencer J oshua Alwyne, Mar-
quis of, President of the Royal Society,
F.S.A., Hon. M.R.LA,, F.LS., F.G.S., 145,
Piccadilly, London.
Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, Chancellor
of the University of Cambridge, K.G.,
D.CL, FERS. FSA. FLS., E.GS.,
Northumberland House, Strand, London.
Norwich, Edward Stanley, Lord Bishop of,
D.D., F.R.S., President of the Linnean So-
ciety ; Lower Brook Street, London.
O’Reardon, John, M.D., 35, York St., Dublin.
Orpen, Charles Edward H., M.D., 34, Hamil-
ton Square West, Woodside, Birkenhead.
Osler, A, Follett, Birmingham.
Ossalinsky, Count, Chestnut Hill, Keswick.
Outram, B. F., M.D., Inspector of H.M. Hos-
pitals and Fleets, E.RB.S., K.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
1, Hanover Square, London.
Owen, Jeremiah, Dockyard, Devonport.
Palmer, William, Harcourt Street, Dublin.
Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool.
Pasley, Major-General Charles William, C.B.,
Royal Engineers, E.R.S., F.G.S., FR.A.S.,
Board of Trade, Whitehall, London.
Patrick, John Shedden, F.R.8.E., Hessilhead,
Beith, Ayrshire.
Patterson, Robert, F.L.S., 3, College Square
North, Belfast.
Pedler, Lieut.-Colonel Philip Warren, Mutley
House, Plymouth.
Peel, George, Higher Ardwick Lodge, Man-
chester.
Peile, Williamson, F.G.S., Lowther Street,
Whitehaven.
Perigal, Frederick,33, Torrington Sq.,London.
Petus, Edward.
Philips, Mark, M.P., Park, near Manchester.
Phillips, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology and Mineralogy in the University
of Dublin.
Philpott, Rev. Henry, M.A., Catharine Hall,
Cambridge.
Pike, Ebenezer, Besborough, Cork.
Pitt, George, 4, Great Portland St., London.
Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth.
Poppelwell, Matthew, Rossella Pl., Tynemouth.
Porter, Hen. John, Tandragee Castle, Armagh.
Porter, G. R., F.R.S., Board of Trade, White-
hall.
Portlock, Capt. Jos. E., Royal Engineers,
F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S., Ordnance Sur-
vey, Dublin.
Powell, Rev. Baden, M.A, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford.
Pratt, Samuel Peace, F.R.S., F.L.S., E.G.S.,
Lansdowne Place West, Bath.
Prestwich, Joseph, jun., F.G.S., 10, Devon-
shire Street, Portland Place, London.
Pretious, Thomas, Royal/Dockyard,Pembroke.
Prince, Rev. John Charles, 63, St.Anne Street,
Liverpool.
Pritchard, Andrew, 162, Fleet Street, London.
Pumphrey, Charles, New Town Row, Bir-
mingham.
Radford, William, M.D., Sidmouth.
Rance, Henry, Cambridge.
Rawlins, John, Birmingham.
Read, William Henry Rudston, M.A., E.LS.,
F.H.S., Hayton, Pocklington.
Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., E.R.S.,
Stone Vicarage, Aylesbury.
Renny, H. L., late of the Royal Engineers,
Assistant Professor of Practical Engineer-
ing, Trinity College, Dublin.
Richardson, John, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Has-
lar Hospital, Gosport.
Riddell, Lieut. Charles J. B., Royal Artillery,
F.R.S., Woolwich.
Roberts, Richard, Manchester.
Robinson, John, Shamrock Lodge, Athlone.
Robson, Rev. John, M.A.,193, Renfrew Street,
Albert Terrace, Glasgow.
Rogers, Rev. Canon, M.A., Penrose, Cornwall.
Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., V.P.S.A., 18 Upper Bedford
Place, London.
Rothwell, Peter, Bolton.
Roughton, William, jun., Kettering, North-
amptonshire.
Royle, John Forbes, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Materia Me-
dica and Therapeutics in King’s College,
London; 4, Bulstrode Street, London.
Rushout, Capt. George (1st Life Guards),
Burford House, Tenbury, Worcestershire.
Russell, James, Birmingham.
Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham.
Sabine, Lt.-Colonel Edward, Royal Artillery,
E.R.S., F.R.A.S., Woolwich.
Sanders, William, F.G.S., Park St., Bristol.
Satterthwaite, Michael, M.D,, Grosvenor St.,
Manchester, ;
124
Schemman, J. C., at L. Thornton’s, Esq.,
Camp Hill, Birmingham.
Schofield, Robert, Rochdale, Lancashire.
Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster.
Scoresby, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S. L. & E.,
Vicar of Bradford, Yorkshire.
Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., Woodwardian
Professor of Geology in the University of
Cambridge, F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., Cambridge.
Semple, Robert, Richmond Lodge, Wavertree,
Liverpool.
Shaen, William, Crix, Witham, Essex.
Shanks, James, 23, Garscube Place, Glasgow.
Sharp, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.,
Bradford, Yorkshire.
Sherrard, David Henry, 84, Upper Dorset
Street, Dublin.
Sillar, Z., M.D., Rainford, near Liverpool.
Simpson, Samuel, Lancaster.
Sirr, Rev. Joseph D’Arcy, Kilcoleman Par-
sonage, Claremorris, Co. Mayo.
Slater, William, Princess Street, Manchester.
Sleeman, Philip, Windsor Terrace, Plymouth.
Smales, R. H., Kingston Bottom.
Smethurst, Rev. Robert, Green Hill, Pilking-
ton, Manchester.
Smith, Rev. George Sidney, D.D., Trinity
College, Dublin.
Smith, Rev. John Pye, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Homerton.
Smith, Rey. Philip, B.A., Cheshunt College,
Hertfordshire.
Smith, Robert Mackay, Windsor Street, Edin-
burgh.
Solly, Samuel Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
E.G.S., Surge Hill, King’s Langley, Herts.
Solly, Edward, jun.,38, Bedford Row, London.
Sopwith, Thomas, F.G.S., Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Squire, Lovell, Falmouth.
Stanger, William, M.D., Wisbech, Cam-
bridgeshire.
Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ireland.
Sutcliffe, William, 4, Belmont, Bath.
Sykes, Lt.-Colonel William Henry, F.R.S.,
Hon. M.R.LA., F.L.S., F.G.8., M.R.A.S.,
47, Albion Street, Hyde Park, London.
Tayler, Rev. J. J., B.A., Manchester.
Taylor, James, Todmorden Hall, Rochdale.
Taylor, Joseph Needham, Captain R.N., 61,
Moorgate Street, London.
Taylor, John, Stronsham Court, Worcestersh.
Taylor, John, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S8., Sheffield
House, Church Lane, Kensington.
Taylor, John, jun., F.G.8., Coed-Di, near
Mold, Flintshire.
Taylor, Richard, jun., F.G.S., Wood, Penryn,
Cornwall.
Taylor, Richard, F.S.A., Assist. Sec. L.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Red Lion
Court, Fleet Street, London.
Tennant, James, F.G.S., Professor of Mine-
ralogy in King’s College, London; 149,
Strand, London.
Thicknesse, Ralph, jun., Beech Hill, Wigan.
Thodey, Winwood, 4, Poultry, London.
BOOK SUBSCRIBERS.
Thompson, Corden, M.D., Sheffield.
Thompson, David Peter, M.R.I.A., Ballin-
taggart, Dingle, Co. Kerry.
Thomson, Edmund Peel, Manchester. ;
Thomson, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.LS.,
Primrose, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
Thomson, James Gibson, Edinburgh.
Thornton, Samuel, Camp Hill, Birmingham.
Thorp, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Archdeacon of
Bristol, F.G.S., Trinity College, Cambridge.
Tidswell, Benjamin Kay, 65, King Street,
Manchester.
Tinné, John A., Briarly Aigburth, Liverpool.
Tobin, Sir John, Liverpool.
Townsend, Richard E., Springfield, Norwood.
bee Artiur, Wallington, Northumber-
land.
Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.,F.R.G.S., Caius College, Cambridge.
Turner, Samuel, F.R.S., F.G.S.,. F.R.A.S.,
Liverpool.
Tweedy, William Mansel, Truro.
Vallack, Rev. Benjamin W. S., St. Budeaux,
Plymouth.
Vance, Robert, Belfast; and 5, Gardiner’s
Row, Dublin.
Vivian, H. Hussey, Swansea.
Walker, John, Weaste House, Pendleton,
Manchester.
Walker, Joseph N., F.L.S., Allerton Hall.
Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., Reader
in Experimental Philosophy in Wadham
College, Oxford.
Walker, Thomas, 3, Cannon Street, Man-
chester.
Wallace, Rev. Robert, 2, Cavendish Place,
Grosvenor Square, Manchester.
Ware, S. Hibbert, M.D., F.R.S.E., York.
Warren, Richard B., 35, Leeson St., Dublin.
Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., Halifax.
Watson, Henry tough, Bolton-le-Moors.
Weaver, Thomas, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S.,
16, Stafford Row, Pimlico.
Webb, Rev. Thomas William, M.A., Tretire
Ross, Herefordshire.
West, William, Literary and Philosophical
Society, Leeds.
Westhead, Joshua Proctor, York House,
Manchester.
Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., Master of Tri-
nity College, Cambridge, F.R.S., Hon.
M.R.LA., FS.A., F.GS., ERAS, The
Lodge, Cambridge.
Whitworth, Joseph, Manchester.
Wickenden, Joseph, Birmingham.
Willert, Paul Ferdinand, Manchester.
Williams, Rev. David, F.G.S., Bleadon, near
Wells.
Williams, William, Rood Lane, London.
Williamson, Rey. W., Clare Hall, Cambridge.
Wills, William, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Wilson, Alexander, F.R.S., F.G.8., 34, Bry-
anstone Square, London.
Wilson, John, Dundyyan, Glasgow.
Wilson, Rev. James, D.D., M.R.I.A., 10, War-
rington Street, Dublin.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1843. 125
Wilson, Thomas, Banks, near Barnsley.
Wilson, William, Troon, Glasgow.
Winsor, F. A., M.R.1A., 57, Lincoln’s Inn
Fields, London.
Winstanley, Thomas W., Essex Street, Man-
chester.
Winterbottom, Rev. James Edward, M.A.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., East Woodhay, Hants.
Woods, Edward, 7, Church Street, Hdge
Hill, Liverpool.
Woodhead, G. Northam, Manchester.
Woollcombe, Henry, F.S.A., Crescent, Ply-
mouth.
Wormald, Richard, jun., 6, Broad Street
Buildings, London.
Wright, Robert Francis, Hinton Blewett, near
Bristol.
Yates, Joseph Brooks, F.S.A., West Dingle,
Liverpool.
Yates, R. Vaughan, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
Yorke, Lt.-Colonel Philip, 12, Duke Street,
Grosvenor Square, London.
Younge, Robert, M.D., Greystones, Sheffield.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS.
Abell, Abraham, M.R.1.A., Royal Institution,
Cork.
Alcock, Rev. Edward Jones, Kilmeen Glebe,
Co. Cork.
Alcock, Ralph, Nelson Street, Manchester.
Allman, George James, Dublin.
Allman, J. C., Bandon, Co. Cork.
Allman, R. L., Bandon, Co. Cork.
Argles, George, Limerick.
Atkins, Rev. William, Trinity College, Dublin.
Austin, General, Mardyke Parade, Cork.
Aylward, John, Waterford. _..
Bandon, The Earl of, Cast’.tBernard, Co.
Cork. wid
Barry, Henry, Barry Lodge, Midleton, Co.
Cork. ;
Bateman, Rowland, Kilcard, near Listowel,
Co. Kerry.
Beale, Abraham, Merchant’s Quay, Cork.
Beale, James, Patrick’s Hill, Cork.
Beamish, Charles, (Town Councillor), Buck-
ingham Place, Cork. :
Beamish, Major N. Ludlow, F.R.S., Beau-
mont, near Cork.
Beamish, Rev. Thomas, Clonakilty, Co. Cork.
Beaufort, Rev. W. L., Glanmire, near Cork.
Beaufort, Rev. William, Glanmire, Cork.
Bernard, Lord, M.P., Castle Bernard, Co. Cork.
Bianconi, Charles, Clonmell.
Birkett, John, F.G.S., 2, Broad Street Build-
ings, London.
Becher, Sir William Wrixon, Bart., Bally-
giblin, Mallow, Co. Cork.
Bell, Richard, Cockermouth, Cumberland.
Bevan, William, M.D., 9, Mespel Place,
Dublin.
Biggs, Henry, Blarney Road, Cork.
Biggs, Thomas, Bandon, Co. Cork.
Bolster, Rey. John, 70, Patrick Street, Cork.
Bourke, Lieut.-Col. Thomas | Fitzmaurice,
Prospect Villa, Carrigaline, near Cork.
Booth, John Peter, Castle View, Co. Cork.
Bourns, Charles, Rush, Dublin.
Bowles, Admiral, Cove, near Cork.
Boyce, Carr Osborne, M.R.LS., Bally Castle,
Carrig-on-Stir, Co. Tipperary.
Braiser, Kilner, Bally Ellis, Co. Cork.
Brinkley, Rey. William, Glanworth, Fermoy,
Co. Cork.
Bull, Christopher A., M.D., Morrisson’s
Island, Cork.
Bullen, Denis B., M.D., 4, Camden Place,
Cork.
Bullen, William, M.D., South Mall, Cork.
Callanan, Albert, M.D., 1, Morrisson’s Quay,
Cork.
Campbell, Dr. (56th Regiment), The Bar-
racks, Cork.
Carmichael, James, Mallow, Co. Cork.
Carpenter, William B., M.D., Bristol.
Christmas, William, Tramore, Co. Waterford.
Clauchy, Daniel, Charleville, Co. Cork.
Clements, Edgar, Waterford.
Clements, Hill, 3, Kildare Place, Dublin.
Clements, John A., Knockahara, Cappoquin,
Co. Waterford.
Clerke,MajorShadwell,K.H.,F.R.S.,F.R.A.S.,
F.G.S., 4, Brompton Grove, London.
Coleby, George, Faulkner’s Lane, Cork.
Copinger, John, M.D., 5, Camden Place, Cork.
Cotter, Rev. George E., Midleton, Co. Cork.
Crawford, George, Merchant’s Quay, Co. Cork.
Cronin, William James Cove, near Cork.
Cumming, Alexander, (74th Regiment), The
Barracks, Cork.
Daly, James, (Town Councillor), Patrick’s
Hill, Cork.
Davies, Thomas Osborne, Dublin.
Dawbarn, Robert, Wisbeach.
De la Cour, Robert, jun., Fairy Hill, Mallow,
Co. Cork.
Deane, Alexander, 1, York Terrace, Cork.
Deane, John C., 23, Leeson Street, Dublin.
Deane, Kearns, South Mall, Cork.
Deaves, Reuben, King’s Street, Cork.
Dowden, Richard, (Town Councillor), Sun-
day’s Well, Cork.
Dowden, William, Grand Parade, Cork.
Drew, William M., Cove, near Cork.
Ebbs, John, M.R.D.S., Dublin.
Edgeworth, Michael Pakenham,
Edgeworth Town, Co. Longford.
Evans, Richard, Union Club, Manchester.
Fagan, Alderman William, Feltrim, Co. Cork.
Finn, Eugene, M.D., Patrick’s Hill, Cork.
Fowler, Richard, M.D., #F.R.S., F.S.A.,
Salisbury.
Fowler, Richard T., M.D., 34, Warren’s
Place, Cork.
Galbraith, Joseph H., Sandy Mount, Dublin.
Galway, St. John, M.D., Mallow.
George, Robert ‘Villiers, Passage, near Cork.
Gollock, Rey. Mr., Highfort Innoshanon,
Co. Cork.
Goold, Sir George, Bart., Old Court, Co. Cork.
ELS.
126
Gourley, Daniel De la Cherois, M.D., Madeley,
Shropshire,
Greed, Alfred, Wellington Place, Cork,
Greenough, George Bellas, F.R.S., F.L,S.,
F.G.S., Regent’s Park.
Grinfield, Charles V., M.D., Clifton, near
Bristol.
Haines, Charles Yelverton, M.D., South
Mall, Cork.
Hall, Elias, Castleton, near Bakewell, Derby-
hir
shire.
Harding, James, King Street, Cork.
Hare, David Thomas, M.D., 15, Marlborough
Street, Cork.
Healy, Michael, Robert Street, Cork.
Hill, Richard Thomas, Ahada, Cloyne,Co.Cork.
Hill, William, George’s Street, Cork.
Hincks, Rey. T. D., LL.D., Belfast.
Hobart, Samuel, M.D., South Mall, Cork.
Hodder, Rev, T. H. Moore, Carrigmore, Co.
Cork.
Home, A. G., M.D., Surgeon to the Forces,
Cork.
Horton, John, St. Mary’s Row, Birmingham,
Howe, Dr., Pembroke Street, Cork.
Hughes, William Hughes, F.S.A., F.L.S.,
High Sheriff of Hampshire, Belle Vue
House, Ryde, Isle of Wight.
Humphreys, John, Royal Institution, Cork.
Hunt, Robert, Polytechnic Institution, Corn-
wall.
Hutton, J. Maxwell, Summer Hill, Dublin.
Irvine, John Caulfield, Grove Hill, Passage
West, Cork.
Irwin, Thomas, Audit Office, Somerset House,
London.
Jameson, R. L., 9, South Mall, Cork.
Jennings, Francis M., M.R.1.A., Brown Street,
Cork.
Jennings, Robert, Brown Street, Cork.
Jennings, Thomas, Brown Street, Cork.
Jerdan, William, 7, Wellington Street, London.
Jones, Rev. Francis, Midleton, near Cork.
Jessop, William, Butterley Hall, Derbyshire.
Johnson, George, M.D., Stockport.
Juckes, John, Putney, Surrey.
Justice, Thomas C., M.D., Mallow, Co. Cork.
Keith, William, 20, Red Cross Street, Man-
chester.
Keleher, Rey. John, Crookstown, Co. Cork.
Kelly, John, 106, Baggot Street, Dublin.
Kennelley, Edward V., King Street, Cork.
Killaloe, The Hon. and Right Rev. The Lord
Bishop of, Clarisford House, Killaloe, Ire-
land.
King, Rev. Alexander, Woodlawn, near Cork.
Kirby, John, Fermoy, Co. Cork.
Kyle, The Venerable Archdeacon, LL.D.,
Sunday’s Well, Cork.
Kyle, Rev. John Torrens, The Palace, Cork.
Lane, Denny, 4, Sidney Lane, Cork.
Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.L.S.,19 A, Golden
Square, London.
Lanphier, Richard, George’s Street, Cork.
Laurence, Rey. R, French, Littleton Rectory,
Co. Tipperary.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1843,
Lawson, James Anthony, Trinity College,
Dublin.
Leader, Nicholas P., Dromanagh, Co. Cork.
Leckey, Robert J., Myrtle Hill Terrace, Cork.
Lefebure, Charles, South Mall, Cork.
Lindsay, John, Mary Ville, Blackroek, Cork.
Locke, Rey. John, New Castle, Go. Limerick.
Logan, William C., Ballycurrig, near Cork.
Leahy, Edmund, Bruen Lodge, Cork.
Leahy, Patrick, Bruen Lodge, Cork.
Lyons, Thomas, 7, South Main Street, Cork.
M°Cann, Rey. Professor, Dublin,
M°Carthy, Michael, 98, George’s Street,
Cork.
M*Carty, F. C., M.D., 3, Morrisson’s Quay,
Cork.
pee Alderman John, South Terrace,
ork.
MS amara, Very Rey. Justin F., Kinsale, Co.
ork.
M*Swiney, Paul, (Town Councillor), 54, King
Street, Cork.
Maclaren, Charles, 15, Northumberland St.,
Edinburgh.
Mahony, Denis M¢Carthy, Montenotte, Cork.
Maltby, Francis N., London.
Mathew, Charles, Lehena, near Cork.
Meade, Horace, M.D., Cove, near Cork.
Meagher, Daniel, (City Treasurer), Clifton
Terrace, Cork.
Merrick, Rey. Samuel Henry, Ballintemple,
Cork.
Mountcashell, The Earl of, Moore Park, Kil-
worth, Co. Cork.
Murphy, Alderman Daniel, Belville, near Cork.
Murphy, Rev. Dominick, Glanmire Road,
Cork.
Murphy, James Nicholas, Clifton, near Cork.
Murphy, Nicholas, (Town Councillor), Clif-
ton, near Cork,
Musgrave, Sir Richard, Bart., Toureen Castle,
Co. Waterford.
Musgrave, Richard, Toureen Castle, Co. Wa-
terford.
Neild, Alfred, Mayfield, Manchester.
Nevins, Hugh N., Summer Hill, Waterford.
Newenham, Charles B., Dundanion, Cork.
Newenham, George, Summer Hill, Cork.
Newenham, Robert A., Dromore, Mallow,
Co. Cork.
Newenham, Rey. Thomas, Kilworth, Co. Cork.
Nicholls, Benjamin, Ancoats, Manchester.
Nott, John, Duncan Street, Cork.
O’Connell, John, Summer Hill, Cork.
O’Connell, Morgan John, M.P., Killarney,
Co. Kerry.
O’Conner, Denis Charles, M.D., 34, South
Mall, Cork.
O’Donovan, Henry Winthropp, Cork.
O’Flanagan, James, R.O., New Barrack House,
Fermoy, Co. Cork.
O’Moore, Garrett, Cloghan Castle, Banagher,
King’s County.
Odell, Edward, Carewswood, Castlemartyr,
Co. Cork.
Oldham, Thomas, F.G,8., Dublin,
- ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1843.
O'Leary, GoodwinR. Purcell, M.D., Dromore,
Mallow, Co. Cork.
Oliver, Richard Charles D., Rock Mill Lodge,
Kildorrery, Co. Cork.
Olliffe, Very Rev. Dr., Summer Hill, Cork.
Olliffe, Dr., Paris,
Osborne, Thomas C., M.D., Lindville, Cork.
O’Shea, Very Rey. M. B., St. Peter and Paul,
Cork.
ie Rev. William, 13, Sydney Place,
ork,
sgrnies Richard Dunscombe, Sunday’s Well,
ork.
Penrose, James, Wood Hill, Cork.
Perrott, John W., Cleve Hill, Blackrock, Cork.
Perrott, Samuel, Cleve Hill, Blackrock, Cork.
Perry, H. 8., M.D., Adelaide Place, Cork.
Perry, R. J., 40, Grand Parade, Cork.
‘Perry, W. N., Adelaide Place, Cork.
Piper, Lt.-Colonel, Royal Engineers, Dyke
House, Cork.
Pitcairn, Sir James, M.D., Cork.
Poole, Rey. Jonas Morris, Golden Glebe,
Cashel, Co. Tipperary.
Poole, Joseph, Grow Town, Co. Wexford.
Porter, John, 22, Lincoln’sInn Fields, London.
Popham, John, M.D.,57, Grand Parade, Cork.
Power, Major, 8, Marlborough Street, Cork.
Power, Pierce, Youghall, Co. Cork.
Power, Dr. Thomas,5,Morrisson’s Quay, Cork.
Reeves, Edward Hoare, Rathcormack, Ireland.
Robinson, Edward, 16, South Mall, Cork.
Robinson, G. F., Stockport, Cheshire.
Roche, Alderman A. F., 67, South Maine
Street, Cork.
Roche, James, (Justice of the Peace), 4, Wo-
burn Place, Cork.
Rooker, Alfred, Plymouth.
Quarry, Rev. John, A.M., Vicar of Kilgariff,
and Prebendary of Ross,Clonakilty,Co.Cork.
Saull, William Devonshire, F.S.A., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., Aldersgate Street, London.
127
Saunders, William Herbert, Grenville Place,
Cork.
Scott, David, M.D., Cove, near Cork.
Seward, Henry Osborne, Lee Cottage, Cork.
Seward, Henry Osborne, jun., Lee Cottage,
Cork.
Skillen, Samuel, 28, Patrick Street, Cork.
Smyth, Henry.
Smyth, William; Limerick.
Spence, William, F.R.S., F.L.S., Hull.
Spence, W. B., Hull.
Spence, R. H., Hull.
Steele, Sir Richard, Bart., Dublin.
Stevelly, Professor John, M.A., Belfast.
Stopford, Rey. Joseph, Abbeyville, Cork.
Sullivan, Edward, Mallow, Co. Cork.
Sweeney, Daniel, 20, Great George’s Street,
Cork.
Talbot, William Hawkshaw, Wrightington
Hall, near Wigan.
Tanner, W. K., M.D., South Mall, Cork.
Thompson, Rev. Edward, 96, South Mall,
Cork.
Thompson, John, Dublin.
Tobin, James, Rock Lodge, Mitchelstown,
Treland.
Topp, Richard, Rockhill, Cork.
Townsend, Edward, Charlotte Quay, Cork.
Townsend, Horatio, Woodside, near Cork.
Troy, John James, Summer Hill, Cork.
Tuckey, Thomas, South Mall, Cork.
Vickers, William, jun., Nottingham.
Warington, Robert, Apothecaries Hall, Lon-
don.
Wherland, James R., M.D., College Build-
ings, Cork.
White, George, C.E., Patrick’s Place, Cork.
Windele, John, Sunday’s Well, Cork.
Wood, George Abraham, Lota House, Co. Cork.
Wood, Thomas, M.D., 93, Patrick Street,
Cork.
Woodroffe, John, M-D., 7, Ely Place, Dublin.
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